by Yahiya Emerick
Congress just passed a bill declaring the consumption of alcohol a felony, punishable by up to 120 days in jail. Although critics said the new law wouldn't work anymore than Prohibition did in the 1920's, supporters of the measure felt confident that it would hold, given the large support from the Muslim America community. Even now, many Islamic organizations are setting up alcohol treatment centers and prevention programs designed to help people kick the dangerous habit. The president, a staunch supporter of moral values, is expected to sign the new bill into law when reaches his desk.
Sound like fiction? It may be fiction now, but the future is like a book of blank, white pages; anything can happen. When I accepted Islam and surrendered my heart to Allah's will, I didn't do it for economic or social reasons. In fact, I suffered in those two areas because of my conversion. Rather, it was a choice on my part to reform my soul, my mind and my understanding of why I was alive and why I would die one day.
I didn't think about living in some town for a few years and making my fortune so my kids could go to Ivy league schools. I wasn't thinking about how to get all my relative a green card nor was I planning to leave and go back home to some far land after my bank account was full enough.
I was born and raised here. This is my land. I'll raise my children here, Insha'allah and probably be buried here as well. I knew that by accepting Islam I was declaring that America needed to do so too. America, my home, would naturally become an Islamic country one day. There is no other way to think if you are a truly conscientious believer in Allah.
In past columns I have raised complaints or alarm bells at the state of some segment of the Muslim community. Now I'm going to offer three suggestions for how we can turn the situation around and become the dominant social and cultural force in a country that needs Islam more than another pop-star, beer-brand or psychic network.
First, we must be reminded of a simple truth: if you believe in Allah, then you must be more than just a praying Muslim; more than just a fasting Muslim. A Christian can go to the masjid and pray side-by-side with us all he wants; a Jew can fast in Ramadan for forty years, but if such a person doesn't surrender their will to Allah, then all those activities won't mean much. Belief in Allah is what makes those actions have merit on Judgment Day.
In the same way, why should we see a praying and fasting Muslim and automatically assume he or she is a true believer ? The blessed Prophet once observed that many are the people who fast but who get nothing from it but hunger and thirst. In a similar vein, Allah said that people who pray for show are those who deny the deen. The intention, the belief, that's what makes our Islam real. That's what builds a foundation for the future of our community here.
Secondly, what's more important than what people see us doing in the masjid, is what they see us doing outside in the society. If people view us as foreigners, it's not because everybody is an evil racist. It's because sometimes we're presenting ourselves that way. We have to look at ourselves with a critical eye!
As a quick note, lest multitudes write and complain: The vast majority of Muslims here have chosen to live in non-Muslim neighborhoods; have chosen to live far from the masjid, have chosen to turn their children into neo-kuffar by letting them be indoctrinated by the public school system and have chosen to have non-Muslims as the primary people they come into contact with. If you choose not to actively practice Islam in your daily life, if you choose not to build and Islamic community, then don't display yourself as an ethnic model and say this is what a Muslim should be.
This leads me to the third factor which will help our faith prosper and grow here. The essential, unifying force we must have is a solid, homogenous community. We must live together. All those people who cry about ghettoizing ourselves need to wake up. Why do the Orthodox Jews live together ? Why do the Amish live together ? Why do the Mormons, the Sikhs, the survivalists and the Koreans live together ? Quite simply, to preserve the unique way of life from the scrourge of assimilation. Are they ghettoized ? No. Are they poor ? No. Their communities tend to be healthier, safer and more prosperous than the general melting pot.
How many Muslims have been lost to Islam in the last fifty years here ? Tens of thousands have been lost. The only reason Islam is still growing here, by large, is because of a steady stream of immigration. But when that dries up, the assimilation will dwindle our community down to nothing. It's like we have a bucket with a hole in the bottom. We keep pouring new immigrants in, but so many are leaking out are lost forever. (And we're hardly making concerted or intelligent efforts at bringing others to the faith.) I used to have contact with a unique community in the heart of Detroit, Michigan. It was originally settled by Yemeni immigrants about ten years ago. Those Muslims could have gone the way of others and lost their Iman. But as you'll see, something quite different occurred.
I still remember my first visit to the area fondly. I was attending a meeting of the newly-formed local ICNA group and had never been exposed to the place before. What I saw amazed me. I was elated, in fact! Children were saying salaams to me on the street and women (in hijab) were walking around and going places leisurely and confidently. I saw Muslims who were Arab, Black and Bengali. But what took the cake for me was when out of nowhere I heard the adhan outdoors over a loudspeaker. They fought the city council and won the right to do adhan five times a day in the community!
Something clicked in the minds of these people. The Yemenis formed a master plan and determined to stay together. They set up a fund and slowly bought one house after another, moving Muslim families in and drug-infested kafirs out, until they literally had thousands of Muslims businesses and stores in the heart of the community and bought a huge Catholic church and made it into a beautiful masjid. They even made a small community health care center!
When we were leaving our meeting and walking to the masjid for salat, it was the most beautiful sight: from all directions, men, women and children, of all races, were going to their masjid as a community. I've never been to Muslim country before, but I'll tell you this much, I felt as if I were in an Islamic country. And this wasn't Egypt or India or Turkey. It was right here - in America.
http://www.jannah.org
Friday, July 10, 2009
Tuesday, June 16, 2009
Payments to and from the Bride in Islamic Law and Tradition
A practical guide
by Ruqaiyyah Waris Maqsood.
the author of over thirty books on Islam
Dowry and Mahr
In the first era of Islam marriage was a simple affair, without pomp or ceremony. Any expenditure incurred in its performance was quite minimal, and not a burden on either family. Indeed, the Prophet stated: 'the most blessed marriage is one in which the marriage partners place the least burden on each other.' (al-Haythami, Kitab ab-Nikah, 4:255).
Nowadays, much difficulty and hardship can be caused by the setting and giving of dowries, bride-prices and mahr - not to mention enormous wedding feasts and celebrations in some cultures which bring a most unreasonable financial burden on the families concerned. Financially crippling celebrations are totally in opposition to the spirit of Islam, and are not necessary. They are purely a matter of the culture of certain regions. No Muslim should feel obliged to continue these unIslamic traditions, or be embarrassed about breaking with their old cultural traditions.
It is very important that Muslims themselves realize that there is an enormous difference between dowry, bride-price and mahr. Many books and articles on the subject confusingly use the word dowry to mean mahr, but in fact the correct word for dowry is jahaz, and its function is totally different.
What is a dowry?
The custom of giving dowry (jahaz) is not part of Islam, although it actually seems to be on the increase among several Muslim cultures, notably those of Indian, Pakistani and Bangladeshi origin, even when they have settled in the UK. In fact, it is a practice which has never been sanctioned by Islam and is not prevalent amongst Muslims of other cultures. It seems to be in imitation of ancient Hindu culture in which daughters were not given any share in the family property, but were given payments, part of which might be in the form of household goods, as a measure of compensation. Islam granted daughters a rightful share in their family property and inheritance.
A 'bride-price' is either : · an amount of money, goods or possessions given to the bride by the bride's family at the time of her marriage, in order to attract a good husband for her. It would in effect become the property of the husband or his family upon his marrying her. This is a totally unIslamic practice. In Islam, women are not 'owned' by their families and should not be 'traded with' in this manner. It is an insulting practice. Or · an amount of money demanded from the bridegroom or his family by the bride or her family, usually the bride's father, without which the daughter will not be given in marriage. In the jahiliyyah society before Islam, this money was regarded as the property of the girl's guardian.
The matters of fathers giving the bride gifts of money or property, or paying for an enormous wedding feast, or providing a home, or setting her up in her home with furniture and household effects are left to the discretion of the people involved in Islam. The Prophet himself saw to the marriages of his four daughters. He gave his daughter Fatimah various gifts when she married Ali b. Abu Talib, but there is no record of his having given anything to his other daughters on the occasion of their marriages. Had such gifts been a recommended sunnah, he would surely have given the others gifts as well. Moreover, the gifts given to Fatimah were extremely modest household articles - a sheet, a leather water-bag, and a pillow stuffed with grass and fiber.
Nothing could be more unIslamic than ostentation. It is ridiculous to attempt to justify flamboyant displays of wealth in lavish gifts or feastings by citing the Prophet's extremely modest gifts to Fatimah.
What is the Mahr?
The mahr is a compulsory part of an Islamic marriage contract. The other words for mahr generally used in the Qur'an are sadaqah and ajr, meaning reward or gift to the bride in which there is profit but no loss, and faridah, literally that which has been made obligatory, or an appointed portion. Allah commanded: 'Give women their faridah as a free gift.' (4:4) (Unfortunately the word is frequently incorrectly translated as 'dowry).
It is a gift of money, possessions or property made by the husband to the wife, which becomes her exclusive property. It is an admission of her independence, for she becomes the owner of the money or property immediately, even though she may have owned nothing before. It has nothing to do with either of their parents, except that a husband might need to take a loan. This should only be done with the intention of repayment. It is also intended as a token of the husband's willing acceptance of the responsibility of bearing all the necessary expenses of his wife.
Even if the wife owned no property or money of her own before her marriage, she is given this money or property when she marries so that she commences her married life in her new status with money or property of her own. The wife gives herself and her services to her husband, and in return he gives her property to own herself, even if she had nothing before, and pledges that he will maintain her. Muslim women are placed in charge of the internal arrangement of the household, while Muslim men are responsible for its financing (even if the wife earns her own money subsequent to her marriage).
The Prophet gave each of his wives a payment of mahr, ranging from token sums, the granting of freedom from slavery when being made a wife, to the payment of 400-500 dirhams. His wife Umm Habibah's mahr consisted of 4000 dirhams, this sum having been fixed by Najashi, the Negus (a Christian ruler) of Abyssinia. (Abu Dawud, Kitab an-Nikah, 2:235).
There was in fact no fixed upper limit for mahr. Allah required the provision to depend upon the circumstances of the husband:
'…the wealthy according to his means, and the straitened in circumstances according to his means. The gift of a reasonable amount is necessary from those who wish to act in the right way.' (2:236).
In a famous case, the second Caliph, Umar b. al-Khattab, once gave a public sermon in which he asked the congregation to refrain from fixing heavy mahrs, and stated that the Prophet had declared no-one should give more than 400 dirhams. A woman immediately stood up and challenged him, quoting the verse 4:20 from the Qur'an: 'But if you decide to take a wife in place of another, even if you had given the first a heap of gold (quintar) for a dowry, you shall not take the least bit back.' Umar went back to the minbar and withdrew his words stating 'the woman is right, and Umar is wrong. Whoever wishes may give as much property as he wishes to give.' (Ibn Hajar al-Athqalani, Fath al-Bari, 9:167).
Who owns the mahr? Can it be refused?
It is owned solely by the wife. The husband is not allowed to refuse to pay his wife a proper mahr or faridah. The settling of the payment is obligatory.
'Women are lawful to you….provided that you take them in marriage and not fornication. As to those through whom you profit (through marriage), give them their faridah as appointed.' (2:24).
The same applied when marrying Jewish or Christian women (5:5). If a Muslim man married someone 'whom his right hand possessed' (ie a slave or prisoner of war), the mahr was to grant her freedom and other payment was not required.
Caliph Umar ruled that if a woman had excused her husband his mahr, but later demanded it, the husband should be compelled to pay it on the grounds that the fact that she demanded it was a clear proof that she had not remit it of her own free will.
The case of a woman whose husband died before fixing the amount of the dowry or consummating the marriage was brought to Abdullah b. Mas'ud. He ruled that she should be paid according to the mahr of women of like status to herself.
The Shafi 'I school rules that a wife may refuse to consummate the marriage if the husband agreed to pay the mahr immediately, but did not do so. She may have the marriage annulled.
How much should the Mahr amount be?
It is unIslamic for a Muslim woman to set a huge demand for herself, with the intention of deterring suitors of humble means. Islam does not require husbands and wives to come from the same social strata or income brackets - although this may often seem to be advisable. Islamic compatibility is based on religious faith and mutual respect, not on money, caste (another Hindu custom), class, background, nationality, etc.
It is just as unIslamic to demand a huge mahr, generally beyond the husband's means, based on the intention of checking the husband from ill-treating his wife, or wrongfully or causelessly divorcing the wife, or preventing him from remarrying another later - the reasoning being that in cases of divorce the woman can demand the full payment of the mahr. The fixing of a substantial mahr for the above purposes rests on the supposition that the mahr has to be fixed at the time of marriage, but not handed over until divorce - which gives it a supposed 'deterrent' value. This is unlawful in Islam, for in this case the wife has no use or ownership of the mahr during the time of the marriage.
If the prospective husband is not a wealthy man, a generous wife may choose to accept very small mahr, but this has to be her own free choice. She should not be coerced or have pressure put on her in any way. Some of the Prophet's female companions accepted their husbands' conversions to Islam, or memorising of ayat of the Qur'an, or giving education to others as their mahr.
The mahr has to be fixed taking into account the bridegroom's position in life. That is, it should not normally be more than he is easily able to afford, whether it be a lump sum or some article of value. Jurists have different views on what the minimum amount should be, but all agree that it should be substantial enough for something to be bought against it. In other words, any amount which is sufficient for a purchase is acceptable as mahr.
The husband may be loaned money by his father or family, but it must be repaid. In the case of Nabi Musa (the Prophet Moses), when he left Egypt for Madyan he married Safura the daughter of the Prophet Shu'ayb. His mahr mu'ajjal was settled and paid off by binding himself to grazing his father-in-law's cattle for ten years without wages. Presumably Shu'ayb had paid Safura on Musa's behalf.
A good woman might agree on a low mahr if she wishes, or none at all, according to the circumstances of her husband. Once fixed it is fixed, and legally binding - so it is good practice to have it written down and witnessed on a document. The wife should take advice on her decision, and not be blinded by emotion, or coercion, or fear, or family pressure. If any person pressurises a woman into a decision she might not have otherwise made, that person will be held to account in the Life to Come, even if he 'got away with it' on this earth.
One recorded hadith suggests that 'the best woman is the one whose mahr is the easiest to pay.' (al-Haythami, Kitab an-Nikah 4:281).
However, it is sensible for a wife to accept a reasonable mahr, as this becomes her own property as stated, and is hers to keep should the marriage fail and end in divorce.
Under what conditions is it payable?
There are two main ways of properly presenting mahr to the bride.
The first way is to hand it over in full at the time of marriage, in which case it is known as mahr mu'ajjal, or 'promptly given mahr'. (Notice the ' . The word is derived from 'ajilah, meaning 'without delay'. This was the accepted practice during the time of the Prophet, and the amount fixed was generally quite minimal.
In the case of Fatimah and Ali, Ali informed the Prophet that he had nothing to give her. The Prophet reminded him of a coat of chain-mail he had been given. It was still in his possession, although in a dilapidated condition and worth less than four dirhams. The Prophet suggested he gave that to Fatimah, and this was done.
The second way of presenting mahr is to defer it, to hand it over to the bride after a certain period of time, the duration of which must be specified, fixed by the man and agreed by the wife. This has to be settled, with witnesses, at the time of the marriage. This form of mahr is known as mahr muwajjal. (the word implies 'in a period of time').
The five major schools of Islamic jurisprudence all agree that delay in handing over the mahr, whether in full or in part, is lawful provided that the fixed period for payment is not indefinite.
This method should never be used as an excuse to willfully postpone the payment. A definite date should always be fixed, witnessed, and adhered to. It should certainly not be left 'hanging' in case the marriage breaks down and the couple come to consider a divorce - because of the inevitable emotions, bitterness, arguments, hostilities and financial problems involved at that time.
If the husband died, or they got divorced, the mahr debt must be paid up immediately to the widow before his inheritance or other financial settlements are considered. It is her property, and not his.
Repayment of Mahr in cases of khul divorce.
A khul divorce is one in which a wife sues for divorce even though the husband has not driven her to it by his unreasonable behavior.
If there is no good reason for a wife wishing to divorce her husband, but it is a case in which she simply wishes to finish the marriage with no particular legal grounds against the husband, the husband may agree to grant her the divorce if she returns all or part of the mahr. This has to be agreed between them.
If the wife does have genuine grounds for divorce - such as cruelty, mental cruelty, breaking of the marriage contract, adultery, desertion, incurable insanity, long-term imprisonment, abandonment of Islam - then the divorce is not khul but a normal talaq, in which the wife has as much right to instigate proceedings as the husband. In these cases, she most certainly does not have to hand over any of the mahr.
If the wife has genuine grounds for divorce but the husband refuses the divorce, she may then approach lawyers for khul, and appoint an Imam to act for her. It is sensible to do this as well as having a UK lawyer. She is not required to pay back any of her mahr. Indeed, the lawyers may demand some further compensation for her if the husband is guilty. (She may have to prove his guilt, and should gather as much evidence beforehand as she can - such as signed and witnessed statements of witnesses, photographs of injuries sustained, etc).
by Ruqaiyyah Waris Maqsood.
the author of over thirty books on Islam
Dowry and Mahr
In the first era of Islam marriage was a simple affair, without pomp or ceremony. Any expenditure incurred in its performance was quite minimal, and not a burden on either family. Indeed, the Prophet stated: 'the most blessed marriage is one in which the marriage partners place the least burden on each other.' (al-Haythami, Kitab ab-Nikah, 4:255).
Nowadays, much difficulty and hardship can be caused by the setting and giving of dowries, bride-prices and mahr - not to mention enormous wedding feasts and celebrations in some cultures which bring a most unreasonable financial burden on the families concerned. Financially crippling celebrations are totally in opposition to the spirit of Islam, and are not necessary. They are purely a matter of the culture of certain regions. No Muslim should feel obliged to continue these unIslamic traditions, or be embarrassed about breaking with their old cultural traditions.
It is very important that Muslims themselves realize that there is an enormous difference between dowry, bride-price and mahr. Many books and articles on the subject confusingly use the word dowry to mean mahr, but in fact the correct word for dowry is jahaz, and its function is totally different.
What is a dowry?
The custom of giving dowry (jahaz) is not part of Islam, although it actually seems to be on the increase among several Muslim cultures, notably those of Indian, Pakistani and Bangladeshi origin, even when they have settled in the UK. In fact, it is a practice which has never been sanctioned by Islam and is not prevalent amongst Muslims of other cultures. It seems to be in imitation of ancient Hindu culture in which daughters were not given any share in the family property, but were given payments, part of which might be in the form of household goods, as a measure of compensation. Islam granted daughters a rightful share in their family property and inheritance.
A 'bride-price' is either : · an amount of money, goods or possessions given to the bride by the bride's family at the time of her marriage, in order to attract a good husband for her. It would in effect become the property of the husband or his family upon his marrying her. This is a totally unIslamic practice. In Islam, women are not 'owned' by their families and should not be 'traded with' in this manner. It is an insulting practice. Or · an amount of money demanded from the bridegroom or his family by the bride or her family, usually the bride's father, without which the daughter will not be given in marriage. In the jahiliyyah society before Islam, this money was regarded as the property of the girl's guardian.
The matters of fathers giving the bride gifts of money or property, or paying for an enormous wedding feast, or providing a home, or setting her up in her home with furniture and household effects are left to the discretion of the people involved in Islam. The Prophet himself saw to the marriages of his four daughters. He gave his daughter Fatimah various gifts when she married Ali b. Abu Talib, but there is no record of his having given anything to his other daughters on the occasion of their marriages. Had such gifts been a recommended sunnah, he would surely have given the others gifts as well. Moreover, the gifts given to Fatimah were extremely modest household articles - a sheet, a leather water-bag, and a pillow stuffed with grass and fiber.
Nothing could be more unIslamic than ostentation. It is ridiculous to attempt to justify flamboyant displays of wealth in lavish gifts or feastings by citing the Prophet's extremely modest gifts to Fatimah.
What is the Mahr?
The mahr is a compulsory part of an Islamic marriage contract. The other words for mahr generally used in the Qur'an are sadaqah and ajr, meaning reward or gift to the bride in which there is profit but no loss, and faridah, literally that which has been made obligatory, or an appointed portion. Allah commanded: 'Give women their faridah as a free gift.' (4:4) (Unfortunately the word is frequently incorrectly translated as 'dowry).
It is a gift of money, possessions or property made by the husband to the wife, which becomes her exclusive property. It is an admission of her independence, for she becomes the owner of the money or property immediately, even though she may have owned nothing before. It has nothing to do with either of their parents, except that a husband might need to take a loan. This should only be done with the intention of repayment. It is also intended as a token of the husband's willing acceptance of the responsibility of bearing all the necessary expenses of his wife.
Even if the wife owned no property or money of her own before her marriage, she is given this money or property when she marries so that she commences her married life in her new status with money or property of her own. The wife gives herself and her services to her husband, and in return he gives her property to own herself, even if she had nothing before, and pledges that he will maintain her. Muslim women are placed in charge of the internal arrangement of the household, while Muslim men are responsible for its financing (even if the wife earns her own money subsequent to her marriage).
The Prophet gave each of his wives a payment of mahr, ranging from token sums, the granting of freedom from slavery when being made a wife, to the payment of 400-500 dirhams. His wife Umm Habibah's mahr consisted of 4000 dirhams, this sum having been fixed by Najashi, the Negus (a Christian ruler) of Abyssinia. (Abu Dawud, Kitab an-Nikah, 2:235).
There was in fact no fixed upper limit for mahr. Allah required the provision to depend upon the circumstances of the husband:
'…the wealthy according to his means, and the straitened in circumstances according to his means. The gift of a reasonable amount is necessary from those who wish to act in the right way.' (2:236).
In a famous case, the second Caliph, Umar b. al-Khattab, once gave a public sermon in which he asked the congregation to refrain from fixing heavy mahrs, and stated that the Prophet had declared no-one should give more than 400 dirhams. A woman immediately stood up and challenged him, quoting the verse 4:20 from the Qur'an: 'But if you decide to take a wife in place of another, even if you had given the first a heap of gold (quintar) for a dowry, you shall not take the least bit back.' Umar went back to the minbar and withdrew his words stating 'the woman is right, and Umar is wrong. Whoever wishes may give as much property as he wishes to give.' (Ibn Hajar al-Athqalani, Fath al-Bari, 9:167).
Who owns the mahr? Can it be refused?
It is owned solely by the wife. The husband is not allowed to refuse to pay his wife a proper mahr or faridah. The settling of the payment is obligatory.
'Women are lawful to you….provided that you take them in marriage and not fornication. As to those through whom you profit (through marriage), give them their faridah as appointed.' (2:24).
The same applied when marrying Jewish or Christian women (5:5). If a Muslim man married someone 'whom his right hand possessed' (ie a slave or prisoner of war), the mahr was to grant her freedom and other payment was not required.
Caliph Umar ruled that if a woman had excused her husband his mahr, but later demanded it, the husband should be compelled to pay it on the grounds that the fact that she demanded it was a clear proof that she had not remit it of her own free will.
The case of a woman whose husband died before fixing the amount of the dowry or consummating the marriage was brought to Abdullah b. Mas'ud. He ruled that she should be paid according to the mahr of women of like status to herself.
The Shafi 'I school rules that a wife may refuse to consummate the marriage if the husband agreed to pay the mahr immediately, but did not do so. She may have the marriage annulled.
How much should the Mahr amount be?
It is unIslamic for a Muslim woman to set a huge demand for herself, with the intention of deterring suitors of humble means. Islam does not require husbands and wives to come from the same social strata or income brackets - although this may often seem to be advisable. Islamic compatibility is based on religious faith and mutual respect, not on money, caste (another Hindu custom), class, background, nationality, etc.
It is just as unIslamic to demand a huge mahr, generally beyond the husband's means, based on the intention of checking the husband from ill-treating his wife, or wrongfully or causelessly divorcing the wife, or preventing him from remarrying another later - the reasoning being that in cases of divorce the woman can demand the full payment of the mahr. The fixing of a substantial mahr for the above purposes rests on the supposition that the mahr has to be fixed at the time of marriage, but not handed over until divorce - which gives it a supposed 'deterrent' value. This is unlawful in Islam, for in this case the wife has no use or ownership of the mahr during the time of the marriage.
If the prospective husband is not a wealthy man, a generous wife may choose to accept very small mahr, but this has to be her own free choice. She should not be coerced or have pressure put on her in any way. Some of the Prophet's female companions accepted their husbands' conversions to Islam, or memorising of ayat of the Qur'an, or giving education to others as their mahr.
The mahr has to be fixed taking into account the bridegroom's position in life. That is, it should not normally be more than he is easily able to afford, whether it be a lump sum or some article of value. Jurists have different views on what the minimum amount should be, but all agree that it should be substantial enough for something to be bought against it. In other words, any amount which is sufficient for a purchase is acceptable as mahr.
The husband may be loaned money by his father or family, but it must be repaid. In the case of Nabi Musa (the Prophet Moses), when he left Egypt for Madyan he married Safura the daughter of the Prophet Shu'ayb. His mahr mu'ajjal was settled and paid off by binding himself to grazing his father-in-law's cattle for ten years without wages. Presumably Shu'ayb had paid Safura on Musa's behalf.
A good woman might agree on a low mahr if she wishes, or none at all, according to the circumstances of her husband. Once fixed it is fixed, and legally binding - so it is good practice to have it written down and witnessed on a document. The wife should take advice on her decision, and not be blinded by emotion, or coercion, or fear, or family pressure. If any person pressurises a woman into a decision she might not have otherwise made, that person will be held to account in the Life to Come, even if he 'got away with it' on this earth.
One recorded hadith suggests that 'the best woman is the one whose mahr is the easiest to pay.' (al-Haythami, Kitab an-Nikah 4:281).
However, it is sensible for a wife to accept a reasonable mahr, as this becomes her own property as stated, and is hers to keep should the marriage fail and end in divorce.
Under what conditions is it payable?
There are two main ways of properly presenting mahr to the bride.
The first way is to hand it over in full at the time of marriage, in which case it is known as mahr mu'ajjal, or 'promptly given mahr'. (Notice the ' . The word is derived from 'ajilah, meaning 'without delay'. This was the accepted practice during the time of the Prophet, and the amount fixed was generally quite minimal.
In the case of Fatimah and Ali, Ali informed the Prophet that he had nothing to give her. The Prophet reminded him of a coat of chain-mail he had been given. It was still in his possession, although in a dilapidated condition and worth less than four dirhams. The Prophet suggested he gave that to Fatimah, and this was done.
The second way of presenting mahr is to defer it, to hand it over to the bride after a certain period of time, the duration of which must be specified, fixed by the man and agreed by the wife. This has to be settled, with witnesses, at the time of the marriage. This form of mahr is known as mahr muwajjal. (the word implies 'in a period of time').
The five major schools of Islamic jurisprudence all agree that delay in handing over the mahr, whether in full or in part, is lawful provided that the fixed period for payment is not indefinite.
This method should never be used as an excuse to willfully postpone the payment. A definite date should always be fixed, witnessed, and adhered to. It should certainly not be left 'hanging' in case the marriage breaks down and the couple come to consider a divorce - because of the inevitable emotions, bitterness, arguments, hostilities and financial problems involved at that time.
If the husband died, or they got divorced, the mahr debt must be paid up immediately to the widow before his inheritance or other financial settlements are considered. It is her property, and not his.
Repayment of Mahr in cases of khul divorce.
A khul divorce is one in which a wife sues for divorce even though the husband has not driven her to it by his unreasonable behavior.
If there is no good reason for a wife wishing to divorce her husband, but it is a case in which she simply wishes to finish the marriage with no particular legal grounds against the husband, the husband may agree to grant her the divorce if she returns all or part of the mahr. This has to be agreed between them.
If the wife does have genuine grounds for divorce - such as cruelty, mental cruelty, breaking of the marriage contract, adultery, desertion, incurable insanity, long-term imprisonment, abandonment of Islam - then the divorce is not khul but a normal talaq, in which the wife has as much right to instigate proceedings as the husband. In these cases, she most certainly does not have to hand over any of the mahr.
If the wife has genuine grounds for divorce but the husband refuses the divorce, she may then approach lawyers for khul, and appoint an Imam to act for her. It is sensible to do this as well as having a UK lawyer. She is not required to pay back any of her mahr. Indeed, the lawyers may demand some further compensation for her if the husband is guilty. (She may have to prove his guilt, and should gather as much evidence beforehand as she can - such as signed and witnessed statements of witnesses, photographs of injuries sustained, etc).
Monday, June 15, 2009
Teaching Islamic Economics - Part 1
The first leading university in the area of teaching Islamic economics as an academic subject is Al-Azhar University. This teaching is administered in two faculties : The Faculty of Commerce (Within the curriculum of the fourth level of the Bachelor’s program), and the faculty of Sharia (within the curriculum of the Legal Politics degree in the graduate program).
This subject matter has been introduced only recently by virtue of law no.102 issued in 1961 on the restructuring of Al Azhar and its constituent institutions. This development occurred quite late, in spite of the long-established existence of Islamic economics which is as old as Islam itself and whose emergence took place fourteen centuries ago. It also occurred quite late in spite of the opinion expressed by Moslem and non-Moslem theologians, and pertaining to the fact that Islamic economics, on the one hand, is unique and enjoys a separate identity and on the other hand, that the foundations and principles that underlie it meet the needs of modern times and guarantee man’s happiness on earth and in the Hereafter. Furthermore, the introduction of Islamic economics into school curricula was started quite late in spite of the enthusiasm shown by the Moslem peoples and their leaders towards the application of the precepts that contain the principles of Islamic economics.
It seems that the issue involves a missing link. We shall try to clarify this in the following three sections :
1. The novelty of Islamic economics as a subject matter.
2. Neglecting the teaching of Islamic economics as a school subject.
3. Neglecting the application of Islamic economics.
3.1. The Novelty of Islamic Economics
3.1.1.Islamic Economics is as Old as Islam Itself
As it has been indicated earlier, Islam is not simply a religious faith; it is also a political, social and economic system for the Islamic society. That is what is intended by the phrases that describe Islam as “a religion and a code of life”, and as ‘a faith and Sharia”.
Islam was not revealed to man for spiritual guidance, as was Christianity which advocates the principle of "Give to Caesar what belongs to Caesar and to God what belongs to God”. Instead, Islam came in order to organize man’s life in all its aspects, whether they are political, social or economic. The Messenger Mohammad, may Allah’s prayer and peace be upon Him, was not only a Prophet but also an executive judge.
Thus, Islamic economics is as old as Islam itself.
3.1.2.The Novelty of Islamic Economics as a Subject Matter
Although Islamic economics dates back to, the emergence of Islam fourteen centuries ago, its introduction into teaching curricula as a separate subject is a flew development. Besides, the research and the areas of study pertaining to this subject are still limited.
Our objective is not to explore the reasons for this failure or that contradiction. Suffice it to point out that Islam has brought new principles and unique foundations in the area of economics. The study of Islamic economics knew its heyday in the early Islamic era, to the extent that several old books are full of original ideas that compare favorably with the modern concepts and theories of economics. More than that, the first world scientifically-oriented books of economics did not appear until the Seventh century (Gregorian), in the light of Islam and through the creativity of Arab writers (See Salah, 1932, Nachaat, 1944 and Mourad, 1952). Subsequently, the study of Islamic economics declined following the cessation of the Ijtihad in the fourth century (Islamic calendar). Since that time, there has been almost no research on Islamic law and, consequently, the studies on Islamic economics have ceased to face the changing needs of society.
This state of affairs has caused the study of Islamic economics to lag behind to such an extent that the content of this subject matter has. been forgotten even by the Moslems themselves and faded out of the minds of their own theologists. Several intellectuals still do not imagine the existence of an Islamic economic system which can meet the needs of modern society and compare favorably with the two dominant economic systems of capitalism and socialism.
3.1.3.Type of Effort Required in the Subject Matter of Islamic Economics
There may now be strong calls for going back to Islam, with the view of applying its economic principles and involving it in the solution of the world problems. However, before doing so, we need to clearly show these economic foundations and the manner in which they can be applied for the benefit of each society and in accordance with the conditions of time and space.
The true enthusiasm and the sincere calls in favor of Islamic economics will be wasted if no efforts are made to highlight the political social and economic precepts of Islam in the Language of modern times, and if no explanations are given as to how these precepts can be applied in such a way as to further the changing interests of society. If such conditions are met, instead of seeking the adoption of the Islamic precepts through mere talk and dogmatism, these godly precepts will impose themselves not only to the Islamic countries but to the whole world, for it is in all times and places the road to salvation. peace and happiness for all humanity.
From the above we can realize the necessity of economics as a scientific and separate subject which lends itself to wide ranging research studies on the economic problems of our times and which finds the Islamic solutions for them.
3.2.Neglecting the Teaching of Islamic Economics
3.2.1.World’s Aspiration Towards Islamic Economics
As it has been indicated earlier, Islamic economics is an independent system which enjoys a separate identity. It is a self-contained system with its own economic policy which encompasses all the different interests - (whether private or public material or spiritual)-, takes into consideration the variations in time and space and, in the final analysis, achieves all the advantageous results and avoids all the inconveniences.
Several foreign and international voices cry out in order to stress the fact that Islamic economics is the hope for the salvation of humanity from the extremist positions adopted by each of the two dominant economic systems capitalism and socialism.
3.2.2.Islamic Universities’ Neglect of Teaching Islamic Economics
In spite of all that, the majority of the universities in the Islamic world itself provide courses on the capitalist and socialist economic systems but not on the Islamic one.
In Egypt, we have created specialized faculties of economics, such as the Faculty of Economics and Political Science, without any mention of the study of Islamic economics. Worse than that, we have set up specialized institutes for Arabic and Islamic studies such as the Institute for Advanced Arab Studies. in which we do not provide any teaching on Islamic economics as a separate subject and yet it is the area of Arabic and Islamic studies that is most worthy of our attention and care.
As was indicated earlier, Al-Azhar University, especially its Commerce and Sharia faculties, is the first leading university in the teaching of Islamic economics as an independent and scientific subject following a law related to the restructuring of Al-Azhar and issued under number 102 in the year 1961. Then there was King Abdulaziz University (Faculty of Economics) in Jeddah Which became the second leading university in the teaching of Islamic economics by virtue of its statutes issued in 1374H/1964 Later. the Seventh Conference of Moslem Ulema held in Cairo in September 1972. issued a resolution on the necessity to teach Islamic economics in the different institutes and universities of the Islamic world. Unfortunately this resolution has not found its way to application until after the First World Conference on Islamic economics which was held in Holy Mecca in February 1976.
Today, Islamic economics has almost become one of the prescribed subjects in several institutes and universities of the Islamic World. especially in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, although it has been harmed by some faculties by including it within the subject of Islamic culture.
Some Islamic universities and their specialized institutions may excuse themselves for not teaching Islamic economics as an independent subject by arguing that it is a new study area whose components have not been clearly delineated and about which there are limited basic references. However, is this not one more reason why Islamic universities and institutions should have set up departments and professorship chairs that are specialized in this subject matter ? Such an action will attract interested students and will consequently generate the relevant research, activate the study of the subject and foster its existence, thus imposing it on human thought. It will also play an effective role in the service of Islam and in the guidance of Moslems’ life.
http://www.ymsite.com
This subject matter has been introduced only recently by virtue of law no.102 issued in 1961 on the restructuring of Al Azhar and its constituent institutions. This development occurred quite late, in spite of the long-established existence of Islamic economics which is as old as Islam itself and whose emergence took place fourteen centuries ago. It also occurred quite late in spite of the opinion expressed by Moslem and non-Moslem theologians, and pertaining to the fact that Islamic economics, on the one hand, is unique and enjoys a separate identity and on the other hand, that the foundations and principles that underlie it meet the needs of modern times and guarantee man’s happiness on earth and in the Hereafter. Furthermore, the introduction of Islamic economics into school curricula was started quite late in spite of the enthusiasm shown by the Moslem peoples and their leaders towards the application of the precepts that contain the principles of Islamic economics.
It seems that the issue involves a missing link. We shall try to clarify this in the following three sections :
1. The novelty of Islamic economics as a subject matter.
2. Neglecting the teaching of Islamic economics as a school subject.
3. Neglecting the application of Islamic economics.
3.1. The Novelty of Islamic Economics
3.1.1.Islamic Economics is as Old as Islam Itself
As it has been indicated earlier, Islam is not simply a religious faith; it is also a political, social and economic system for the Islamic society. That is what is intended by the phrases that describe Islam as “a religion and a code of life”, and as ‘a faith and Sharia”.
Islam was not revealed to man for spiritual guidance, as was Christianity which advocates the principle of "Give to Caesar what belongs to Caesar and to God what belongs to God”. Instead, Islam came in order to organize man’s life in all its aspects, whether they are political, social or economic. The Messenger Mohammad, may Allah’s prayer and peace be upon Him, was not only a Prophet but also an executive judge.
Thus, Islamic economics is as old as Islam itself.
3.1.2.The Novelty of Islamic Economics as a Subject Matter
Although Islamic economics dates back to, the emergence of Islam fourteen centuries ago, its introduction into teaching curricula as a separate subject is a flew development. Besides, the research and the areas of study pertaining to this subject are still limited.
Our objective is not to explore the reasons for this failure or that contradiction. Suffice it to point out that Islam has brought new principles and unique foundations in the area of economics. The study of Islamic economics knew its heyday in the early Islamic era, to the extent that several old books are full of original ideas that compare favorably with the modern concepts and theories of economics. More than that, the first world scientifically-oriented books of economics did not appear until the Seventh century (Gregorian), in the light of Islam and through the creativity of Arab writers (See Salah, 1932, Nachaat, 1944 and Mourad, 1952). Subsequently, the study of Islamic economics declined following the cessation of the Ijtihad in the fourth century (Islamic calendar). Since that time, there has been almost no research on Islamic law and, consequently, the studies on Islamic economics have ceased to face the changing needs of society.
This state of affairs has caused the study of Islamic economics to lag behind to such an extent that the content of this subject matter has. been forgotten even by the Moslems themselves and faded out of the minds of their own theologists. Several intellectuals still do not imagine the existence of an Islamic economic system which can meet the needs of modern society and compare favorably with the two dominant economic systems of capitalism and socialism.
3.1.3.Type of Effort Required in the Subject Matter of Islamic Economics
There may now be strong calls for going back to Islam, with the view of applying its economic principles and involving it in the solution of the world problems. However, before doing so, we need to clearly show these economic foundations and the manner in which they can be applied for the benefit of each society and in accordance with the conditions of time and space.
The true enthusiasm and the sincere calls in favor of Islamic economics will be wasted if no efforts are made to highlight the political social and economic precepts of Islam in the Language of modern times, and if no explanations are given as to how these precepts can be applied in such a way as to further the changing interests of society. If such conditions are met, instead of seeking the adoption of the Islamic precepts through mere talk and dogmatism, these godly precepts will impose themselves not only to the Islamic countries but to the whole world, for it is in all times and places the road to salvation. peace and happiness for all humanity.
From the above we can realize the necessity of economics as a scientific and separate subject which lends itself to wide ranging research studies on the economic problems of our times and which finds the Islamic solutions for them.
3.2.Neglecting the Teaching of Islamic Economics
3.2.1.World’s Aspiration Towards Islamic Economics
As it has been indicated earlier, Islamic economics is an independent system which enjoys a separate identity. It is a self-contained system with its own economic policy which encompasses all the different interests - (whether private or public material or spiritual)-, takes into consideration the variations in time and space and, in the final analysis, achieves all the advantageous results and avoids all the inconveniences.
Several foreign and international voices cry out in order to stress the fact that Islamic economics is the hope for the salvation of humanity from the extremist positions adopted by each of the two dominant economic systems capitalism and socialism.
3.2.2.Islamic Universities’ Neglect of Teaching Islamic Economics
In spite of all that, the majority of the universities in the Islamic world itself provide courses on the capitalist and socialist economic systems but not on the Islamic one.
In Egypt, we have created specialized faculties of economics, such as the Faculty of Economics and Political Science, without any mention of the study of Islamic economics. Worse than that, we have set up specialized institutes for Arabic and Islamic studies such as the Institute for Advanced Arab Studies. in which we do not provide any teaching on Islamic economics as a separate subject and yet it is the area of Arabic and Islamic studies that is most worthy of our attention and care.
As was indicated earlier, Al-Azhar University, especially its Commerce and Sharia faculties, is the first leading university in the teaching of Islamic economics as an independent and scientific subject following a law related to the restructuring of Al-Azhar and issued under number 102 in the year 1961. Then there was King Abdulaziz University (Faculty of Economics) in Jeddah Which became the second leading university in the teaching of Islamic economics by virtue of its statutes issued in 1374H/1964 Later. the Seventh Conference of Moslem Ulema held in Cairo in September 1972. issued a resolution on the necessity to teach Islamic economics in the different institutes and universities of the Islamic world. Unfortunately this resolution has not found its way to application until after the First World Conference on Islamic economics which was held in Holy Mecca in February 1976.
Today, Islamic economics has almost become one of the prescribed subjects in several institutes and universities of the Islamic World. especially in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, although it has been harmed by some faculties by including it within the subject of Islamic culture.
Some Islamic universities and their specialized institutions may excuse themselves for not teaching Islamic economics as an independent subject by arguing that it is a new study area whose components have not been clearly delineated and about which there are limited basic references. However, is this not one more reason why Islamic universities and institutions should have set up departments and professorship chairs that are specialized in this subject matter ? Such an action will attract interested students and will consequently generate the relevant research, activate the study of the subject and foster its existence, thus imposing it on human thought. It will also play an effective role in the service of Islam and in the guidance of Moslems’ life.
http://www.ymsite.com
Teaching Islamic Economics - Part 2
3.2.3.The Mission to be Accomplished by the Leaders of Islamic Economics
When departments and chairs are created for Islamic economics, occupants will have numerous difficult responsibilities, especially the following :
1. Preparing studies on Koran and Sunna texts that relate to Islamic economics, showing how these texts can be implemented in ways that are consistent with the conditions of time and space, and suggesting Islamic solutions for the different economic problems of the time.
2. Conducting comparative studies between the Islamic and other economic systems showing the extent to which the differences in their respective applications are a result of differences in the systems themselves, and providing an evaluation of each system.
3. Consulting the volumes written by the experts on Islamic Sharia, extracting their detailed opinions on questions of economics and expressing them in terms used in the current economic literature along with the presentation of relevant commentaries.
4. Keeping abreast of the developments in the economic thought among the Islamic thinkers through out the different Islamic eras and countries, identifying the differences among them, and determining the bases of each opinion and presenting an evaluation of it.
5. Supervising the setting up of a scientific library which contains the volumes research studies, dissertations and specialized journals that deal with economics in Islam.
6. Encouraging the writing of master’s and doctoral dissertations in Islamic economics and providing for the training of young researchers who combine the two cultures the first being one of Islam and Fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) and the second being one of technical economics.
7. Studying the economic situations in the Islamic world investigating the underdevelopment that it suffers from, and drawing plans for the setting up of Islamic economic structures which will ensure cooperation among Islamic countries and their complementarily, and will benefit humanity.
We are not being unrealistic in our recommendations. We look forward to the setting up within the Islamic world of centers or institutes that are specialized in Islamic economics.
[Note: The First World Conference on Islamic Economics which was convened by the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and organized by Kint Abdelaziz University in Holy Mecca in Safar 139 February 1976 led to he creation of the World Center for Research on Islamic Economics (as a part of King Abdelaziz University). Similarly. the First World Conference on Fiqh which was convened by the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and organized by Imam Mohamed Ibn Saoud University in Ryad in Do Lqiada. 1396/November 1976 led to the creation of a department of Islamic Economics in the Sharia faculties. The department is intended for the study of Islamic economics in four complete years and started operating in the academic year 1399-1400 AH. Later this department became a separate Faculty of Islamic Economics. In addition to the above. the Commerce Faculty of the AI-Azhar University took the initiative of setting up the "Sheikh Abdellah Kamil Center for Research and Studies on Islamic Commerce” which delivers, in the name of AI-Azhar University master’s and doctoral degrees in Islamic economics.]
Economy is the vital context which reveals the material and spiritual strength of Islam and through which the Islamic Ummah can achieve its cohesion, strength and universal mission.
3.3. Neglecting the Application of Islamic Economics
3.3.1.Gap between Belief and Reality
Nobody doubts the Moslems’ faith in Islam and nobody questions their belief in the soundness of the principles that constitute the basis of this religion, especially in the context of the organization of society in its political. social and economic activities.
Several voices cry out at different official and non-official levels some die out in insistence while others burst out in anger calling for the application of the foundations and the principles of Islamic economics. Sometimes, these voices find attentive ears and a strong echo among the people in charge as well as a sincere response and a confirmed interest on the part of the peoples and their leaders. However, the response stops there.
3.3.2. The Reasons for not Applying the Principles of Islamic Economics
Although the Moslem peoples and their leaders adhere to Islam and experience the application of the Sharia, they, nonetheless, seek the solutions to their different economic problems outside Islam and thus, we see their societies swinging awkwardly between the capitalist and socialist systems, neglecting their Islamic economic system.
This state of affairs does not mean the forsaking of Islam or doubt about its economic principles. Neither does it mean negligence on the part of Moslems or atavism (reversion) on the part of the leaders. The reason for not applying the principles of Islamic economics is that the solutions which are presented in the name of Islam for the problems of our modern times (and they are complex economic problems) are simplistic and unpractical. In fact these solutions are suggested by some men of religion who are not specialized in economic matters, relying in doing so on some old time religious leaders or theologists. In doing so, they ignore some important matters which are as follows :
1. Islam does not have a place for men of religion as such for all Moslems are men of religion. However, it does have a status for men of knowledge. Nowadays, it is not enough for a person to be educated in the large domain of Fiqh in order to be able to formulate legal opinions about modern complex economic matters. Rather. it is necessary for him, in addition to that, to have a specialized knowledge that comprises the foundations and the details of the economics science.
2. The judgments by Ijtihad made by the old time Islamic leaders and theologists, in spite of their great importance, cannot be taken in their absolute meanings. since they are essentially opinions. Added to this is the fact that most of these judgments were formulated in a period and in conditions which are not ours and on problems which are not ours. Today. We are called upon to make serious attempts as the old time theologists did in order to reveal Islam's judgments on the new financial transactions and economic problems.
3. Several writers on Islamic economics limit their studies to subjects that relate essentially to the questions of riba and the prohibiting of interest insurance companies, banking transactions ,as if Islamic economics were limited to these questions. Even in their dealing wit h these topics and in the conclusions of prohibition and unlawfulness that they usually reach (without making any distinction between different banking or insurance operations). most of these writers do not present to us a detailed study on the practical alternative to what they prohibit. This ends up in cutting short the investigation for the required solution.
Some people make the confusion between Islamic economics and Islamic financing science. They entitle their works Islamic economics and inside they deal with the topics of the ‘fifth” (khumus). the “tenth” part (a’ouchour), land-or poll-tax (kharaj) body and face partnerships (sharikat al’abdan and sharikat lwujuh). Although the majority of these topics have acquired historical importance. they nevertheless present no serious studies that can be reliably related to the reality of our modern world.
3.3.3.The Cause of the Problem and it Solution
In the final analysis, the cause of the problem is that we do not have enough specialists in Islamic economics.
There lies, in my opinion. the ill that we are suffering from and there lies too the missing link.
Modern economists lack the thorough knowledge of Islam. and therefore they spontaneously get weary of studying the economic foundations for the economic problems of our time. On the other hand our theologists lack training in modern economics, a fact that makes them unable to do well in revealing the economic foundations of Islam and using them in ways that are consistent with the requirements of our time and with the reality of our current complex economic world.
This state of affairs has led the Moslems of today, common people and leaders alike. to turn in a vicious circle, aspiring to Islamic economics and calling for Islamic solutions to their problems while, at the same time, dividing themselves between the capitalist and the socialist Systems and applying the solutions of this or that system about which they do not feel comfortable or secure.
The only choice for the solution of this problem or the escape from this vicious circle is to train specialists in Islamic economics, who combine “the rich Islamic culture” and “the contemporary modern economic culture".
This will be achieved not through call for determination and appeals to theologists for seeking specialization, but through the creation of departments and chairs for this subject matter in the Islamic universities, administration institutes, faculties of commerce and law, etc. This will lead to the constitution of a specialized student body for this subject matter.
Through this systematic approach, we will highlight the economic foundations of Islam with the spirit of contemporary life, and show the possibility of applying them in a way that is consistent with the changing needs of society. It is only with this approach that we will be able to put an end to all kinds of blind fanaticism and empty appeals, and that we will enable Islamic economics to develop and flourish. and thus contribute to the solution of world problems and the fostering of world peace.
This is a cry from the depth of my heart, which I am addressing to all Moslems, especially the economists and theologists for the sake of knowledge and truth, and for Islam and Moslems, The rationale is that Islamic economics is the material and spiritual strength of Islam, and that it provides the means for the achievement of the Islamic Umma’s cohesion, strength and world mission.
I have conveyed the message. May God be the witness.
http://www.ymsite.com
When departments and chairs are created for Islamic economics, occupants will have numerous difficult responsibilities, especially the following :
1. Preparing studies on Koran and Sunna texts that relate to Islamic economics, showing how these texts can be implemented in ways that are consistent with the conditions of time and space, and suggesting Islamic solutions for the different economic problems of the time.
2. Conducting comparative studies between the Islamic and other economic systems showing the extent to which the differences in their respective applications are a result of differences in the systems themselves, and providing an evaluation of each system.
3. Consulting the volumes written by the experts on Islamic Sharia, extracting their detailed opinions on questions of economics and expressing them in terms used in the current economic literature along with the presentation of relevant commentaries.
4. Keeping abreast of the developments in the economic thought among the Islamic thinkers through out the different Islamic eras and countries, identifying the differences among them, and determining the bases of each opinion and presenting an evaluation of it.
5. Supervising the setting up of a scientific library which contains the volumes research studies, dissertations and specialized journals that deal with economics in Islam.
6. Encouraging the writing of master’s and doctoral dissertations in Islamic economics and providing for the training of young researchers who combine the two cultures the first being one of Islam and Fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) and the second being one of technical economics.
7. Studying the economic situations in the Islamic world investigating the underdevelopment that it suffers from, and drawing plans for the setting up of Islamic economic structures which will ensure cooperation among Islamic countries and their complementarily, and will benefit humanity.
We are not being unrealistic in our recommendations. We look forward to the setting up within the Islamic world of centers or institutes that are specialized in Islamic economics.
[Note: The First World Conference on Islamic Economics which was convened by the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and organized by Kint Abdelaziz University in Holy Mecca in Safar 139 February 1976 led to he creation of the World Center for Research on Islamic Economics (as a part of King Abdelaziz University). Similarly. the First World Conference on Fiqh which was convened by the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and organized by Imam Mohamed Ibn Saoud University in Ryad in Do Lqiada. 1396/November 1976 led to the creation of a department of Islamic Economics in the Sharia faculties. The department is intended for the study of Islamic economics in four complete years and started operating in the academic year 1399-1400 AH. Later this department became a separate Faculty of Islamic Economics. In addition to the above. the Commerce Faculty of the AI-Azhar University took the initiative of setting up the "Sheikh Abdellah Kamil Center for Research and Studies on Islamic Commerce” which delivers, in the name of AI-Azhar University master’s and doctoral degrees in Islamic economics.]
Economy is the vital context which reveals the material and spiritual strength of Islam and through which the Islamic Ummah can achieve its cohesion, strength and universal mission.
3.3. Neglecting the Application of Islamic Economics
3.3.1.Gap between Belief and Reality
Nobody doubts the Moslems’ faith in Islam and nobody questions their belief in the soundness of the principles that constitute the basis of this religion, especially in the context of the organization of society in its political. social and economic activities.
Several voices cry out at different official and non-official levels some die out in insistence while others burst out in anger calling for the application of the foundations and the principles of Islamic economics. Sometimes, these voices find attentive ears and a strong echo among the people in charge as well as a sincere response and a confirmed interest on the part of the peoples and their leaders. However, the response stops there.
3.3.2. The Reasons for not Applying the Principles of Islamic Economics
Although the Moslem peoples and their leaders adhere to Islam and experience the application of the Sharia, they, nonetheless, seek the solutions to their different economic problems outside Islam and thus, we see their societies swinging awkwardly between the capitalist and socialist systems, neglecting their Islamic economic system.
This state of affairs does not mean the forsaking of Islam or doubt about its economic principles. Neither does it mean negligence on the part of Moslems or atavism (reversion) on the part of the leaders. The reason for not applying the principles of Islamic economics is that the solutions which are presented in the name of Islam for the problems of our modern times (and they are complex economic problems) are simplistic and unpractical. In fact these solutions are suggested by some men of religion who are not specialized in economic matters, relying in doing so on some old time religious leaders or theologists. In doing so, they ignore some important matters which are as follows :
1. Islam does not have a place for men of religion as such for all Moslems are men of religion. However, it does have a status for men of knowledge. Nowadays, it is not enough for a person to be educated in the large domain of Fiqh in order to be able to formulate legal opinions about modern complex economic matters. Rather. it is necessary for him, in addition to that, to have a specialized knowledge that comprises the foundations and the details of the economics science.
2. The judgments by Ijtihad made by the old time Islamic leaders and theologists, in spite of their great importance, cannot be taken in their absolute meanings. since they are essentially opinions. Added to this is the fact that most of these judgments were formulated in a period and in conditions which are not ours and on problems which are not ours. Today. We are called upon to make serious attempts as the old time theologists did in order to reveal Islam's judgments on the new financial transactions and economic problems.
3. Several writers on Islamic economics limit their studies to subjects that relate essentially to the questions of riba and the prohibiting of interest insurance companies, banking transactions ,as if Islamic economics were limited to these questions. Even in their dealing wit h these topics and in the conclusions of prohibition and unlawfulness that they usually reach (without making any distinction between different banking or insurance operations). most of these writers do not present to us a detailed study on the practical alternative to what they prohibit. This ends up in cutting short the investigation for the required solution.
Some people make the confusion between Islamic economics and Islamic financing science. They entitle their works Islamic economics and inside they deal with the topics of the ‘fifth” (khumus). the “tenth” part (a’ouchour), land-or poll-tax (kharaj) body and face partnerships (sharikat al’abdan and sharikat lwujuh). Although the majority of these topics have acquired historical importance. they nevertheless present no serious studies that can be reliably related to the reality of our modern world.
3.3.3.The Cause of the Problem and it Solution
In the final analysis, the cause of the problem is that we do not have enough specialists in Islamic economics.
There lies, in my opinion. the ill that we are suffering from and there lies too the missing link.
Modern economists lack the thorough knowledge of Islam. and therefore they spontaneously get weary of studying the economic foundations for the economic problems of our time. On the other hand our theologists lack training in modern economics, a fact that makes them unable to do well in revealing the economic foundations of Islam and using them in ways that are consistent with the requirements of our time and with the reality of our current complex economic world.
This state of affairs has led the Moslems of today, common people and leaders alike. to turn in a vicious circle, aspiring to Islamic economics and calling for Islamic solutions to their problems while, at the same time, dividing themselves between the capitalist and the socialist Systems and applying the solutions of this or that system about which they do not feel comfortable or secure.
The only choice for the solution of this problem or the escape from this vicious circle is to train specialists in Islamic economics, who combine “the rich Islamic culture” and “the contemporary modern economic culture".
This will be achieved not through call for determination and appeals to theologists for seeking specialization, but through the creation of departments and chairs for this subject matter in the Islamic universities, administration institutes, faculties of commerce and law, etc. This will lead to the constitution of a specialized student body for this subject matter.
Through this systematic approach, we will highlight the economic foundations of Islam with the spirit of contemporary life, and show the possibility of applying them in a way that is consistent with the changing needs of society. It is only with this approach that we will be able to put an end to all kinds of blind fanaticism and empty appeals, and that we will enable Islamic economics to develop and flourish. and thus contribute to the solution of world problems and the fostering of world peace.
This is a cry from the depth of my heart, which I am addressing to all Moslems, especially the economists and theologists for the sake of knowledge and truth, and for Islam and Moslems, The rationale is that Islamic economics is the material and spiritual strength of Islam, and that it provides the means for the achievement of the Islamic Umma’s cohesion, strength and world mission.
I have conveyed the message. May God be the witness.
http://www.ymsite.com
Saturday, June 6, 2009
Quantum Politics
The theory of quantum mechanics has been of great use lately for all sorts of new world views and paradigms. With its alleged holism, indeterminism and complementarity it has been said to contain great similarities with eastern philosophy, environmentalism and The New Age. According to this book it also happens to have immense and world shaking implications for political science. And why not?
We all know that people's thinking is often influenced by science. Just think of what Copernican astronomy, Newtonian physics, genetics, Darwin, modern ecology and economics have done to our world view. Still, there is room for scepticism when it comes to mixing such diverse fields of knowledge as atoms and politics.
The main thesis of most of the contributors of this volume is that politics and/or political science (it is a bit unclear which is meant) will greatly improve by studying quantum physics. The old politics, and political science, are far too attached to Newtonian physics. And since science has moved from that old mechanistic, atomistic and deterministic paradigm to a new one in physics, then it is high time that political scientists do the same.
There are many arguments along these lines and I will only mention a few to show the general trend:
(a) The new QM emphasizes relational qualities more than atomic properties. This leads to the insight that relation is of greater explanatory and practical value in modern societies, where we cannot view individuals as isolated atoms.
(b) In QM the state of the system is dependent on how it is observed. In a similar way social facts are dependent on the observer and his, or her, background knowledge.
(c) QM teaches us that everything is dependent on everything else in the sense that many-particle systems must be viewed as wholes (the wave-function as a superposition of states). This is also what "greenl>olitical philosophy tells us.
(d) The quantum world is chance-like. So are human societies, and we ought therefore to have self-regulating institutions to make them work.
Unfortunately these arguments raise many more objections than they were intended to disarm.
For example, (a) is meant as a criticism against the classical liberal order which the authors see as typical of the Western World. But in order to view this as an argument for a new social order one has to accept 1) that the classical liberal order is "Newtonian" with respect to properties and relations, 2) that there: really is such a difference between Newton's mechanics and QM as assumed, and 3) that the QM-revolution in physics has any implications for what one should, or should not, do in politics. However, both Newtonian and quantum mechanics contain both non-relational properties, such as mass and charge, and relational ones, such as velocity and potential energy. Assumption (3) is of course fundamental to all the arguments (a) to (d), and indeed to the whole project. Seeing the obvious objection to (3) most authors explicitly reject any such normative claims. But if this is so, then why make such a big fuss over the fact that QM is new and Newton's theory is old and rejected?
Argument (b) is partly based on a mix up between the quantum phenomenon that measurement instruments physically interact with the measured system and the old philosophical and psychological insight that all observations are theory-dependent. The quantum world is sometimes said to be holistic as assumed in (c). But so is the Newtonian world since all material bodies are instantly connected with each other through the gravitational force. In this sense, Newtons mechanics is just as "green" as modern physics. In the Copenhagian interpretation, QM is also said to be chance-like as stated in (d). But statistical predictions can be made there with high precision. Besides, do we really need modern atomic theory to come up with the idea that there may be chance phenomena in the social and political spheres?
It might be objected that I do not give due credit to the social and political theories that are actually presented in the book. I agree, I do not do that. But the main theme of the book, and what motivates putting these papers together, is the alleged implications of quantum theory for social science. And that thesis simply does not hold. What may be done, and what in fact has been demonstrated, is that a handful of social scientist have felt inspired by quantum mechanics. Some of them have also been inspired by the theory of relativity and classical thermodynamics. So be it. I have no objections to that. I have even heard of scientists who got their inspiration from looking into the fire or sitting in the garden watching apples falling to the ground.
Theodore L. Becker, (New York, Praeger Publishers, 1991).
Ingemar Nordin, Linkiping University, Sweden.
We all know that people's thinking is often influenced by science. Just think of what Copernican astronomy, Newtonian physics, genetics, Darwin, modern ecology and economics have done to our world view. Still, there is room for scepticism when it comes to mixing such diverse fields of knowledge as atoms and politics.
The main thesis of most of the contributors of this volume is that politics and/or political science (it is a bit unclear which is meant) will greatly improve by studying quantum physics. The old politics, and political science, are far too attached to Newtonian physics. And since science has moved from that old mechanistic, atomistic and deterministic paradigm to a new one in physics, then it is high time that political scientists do the same.
There are many arguments along these lines and I will only mention a few to show the general trend:
(a) The new QM emphasizes relational qualities more than atomic properties. This leads to the insight that relation is of greater explanatory and practical value in modern societies, where we cannot view individuals as isolated atoms.
(b) In QM the state of the system is dependent on how it is observed. In a similar way social facts are dependent on the observer and his, or her, background knowledge.
(c) QM teaches us that everything is dependent on everything else in the sense that many-particle systems must be viewed as wholes (the wave-function as a superposition of states). This is also what "greenl>olitical philosophy tells us.
(d) The quantum world is chance-like. So are human societies, and we ought therefore to have self-regulating institutions to make them work.
Unfortunately these arguments raise many more objections than they were intended to disarm.
For example, (a) is meant as a criticism against the classical liberal order which the authors see as typical of the Western World. But in order to view this as an argument for a new social order one has to accept 1) that the classical liberal order is "Newtonian" with respect to properties and relations, 2) that there: really is such a difference between Newton's mechanics and QM as assumed, and 3) that the QM-revolution in physics has any implications for what one should, or should not, do in politics. However, both Newtonian and quantum mechanics contain both non-relational properties, such as mass and charge, and relational ones, such as velocity and potential energy. Assumption (3) is of course fundamental to all the arguments (a) to (d), and indeed to the whole project. Seeing the obvious objection to (3) most authors explicitly reject any such normative claims. But if this is so, then why make such a big fuss over the fact that QM is new and Newton's theory is old and rejected?
Argument (b) is partly based on a mix up between the quantum phenomenon that measurement instruments physically interact with the measured system and the old philosophical and psychological insight that all observations are theory-dependent. The quantum world is sometimes said to be holistic as assumed in (c). But so is the Newtonian world since all material bodies are instantly connected with each other through the gravitational force. In this sense, Newtons mechanics is just as "green" as modern physics. In the Copenhagian interpretation, QM is also said to be chance-like as stated in (d). But statistical predictions can be made there with high precision. Besides, do we really need modern atomic theory to come up with the idea that there may be chance phenomena in the social and political spheres?
It might be objected that I do not give due credit to the social and political theories that are actually presented in the book. I agree, I do not do that. But the main theme of the book, and what motivates putting these papers together, is the alleged implications of quantum theory for social science. And that thesis simply does not hold. What may be done, and what in fact has been demonstrated, is that a handful of social scientist have felt inspired by quantum mechanics. Some of them have also been inspired by the theory of relativity and classical thermodynamics. So be it. I have no objections to that. I have even heard of scientists who got their inspiration from looking into the fire or sitting in the garden watching apples falling to the ground.
Theodore L. Becker, (New York, Praeger Publishers, 1991).
Ingemar Nordin, Linkiping University, Sweden.
Friday, June 5, 2009
Zakat - Islamic Economy Purpose in Islam - Part 1
The economics of Zakat and its relevance to modern times is a hotly debated issue among both religious and liberal Muslims. This series of articles will attempt to explain the concept of Zakat in the light of only the Quran and the faithful implementation of this concept by our Prophet Muhammad (pbuh). We will see how a similarly implemented system can solve the current economic problems of not just Muslim Countries, but of the World.
Zakat - First Universal Welfare System
Contrary to the beliefs of both religious and secular Muslims, the Prophet Muhammad achievements were based not on ephemeral but on the permanent values of the Quran. He brought about the greatest revolution, even an economic and political miracle in human history (see Michael Hart, THE 100, pages 3-10). In a very short time after the prophet migrated to Medina and implemented the system of salaat and zakat, the economic condition of the people changed.
* (For a detailed discussion about the system of salaat, see a two part article in MONITOR, pages 6-10, September/October 1998, and pages 7-12, December1998/January 1999)
The Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) is reported to have said; If a single person were to sleep hungry in a town, then God's protection is lifted from that town -[Masnad Imam Ahmad]. This hadith emphasizes that no one (Muslims or non Muslims) under this system should go hungry. Thus this zakat system created the first universal welfare system in human history. It also gradually transformed the existing slave based economy to a universal welfare based economy. By the end of the Prophet's period, the entire Arabian Peninsula enjoyed economic as well as political security. This system reached its pinnacle during Khalifa Umar's time (again, see Michael Hart, THE 100, pages 261-265), a time when, history tells us, hardly anyone was in need of charity.
What has occurred then in the intervening years that the Muslims masses are suffering economic deprivation even though they live in areas with plenty of natural resources?
What Happened Then?
Muslims and non Muslims alike ask the question; If the system implemented by our Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) and Sahabaa (r) was so good, why did it not continue? The answer is simple, we changed or abandoned the system implemented by the Prophet Muhammad. Instead of deciding matters with open consultation, as the Quran requires, the Ummayad and Abbasid dynastic rulers created a dictatorship under the guise of " Shari'iah " and " Ijma'a ". This was a ploy to fool the people. The rulers first acquired illegal political authority, and then delegated religious authority to Imams appointed by themselves.
Thus they hijacked the train of Islam from the track of our Prophet (pbuh) and his Sahabba (r) and put it on a new track called " Shari'ah ." Since then, a minority of the rich and powerful has been riding this train and entertaining their friends while exploiting the vast majority of Muslims along the way. Consequently, common Muslims have continued to live in poverty and to suffer intergenerational economic misery. Islam's system of Zakat has had nothing to do with this sad state of affairs.
Zakat & Our Approach
Today, we are taught that zakat is one of the pillars of Islam. Zakat is generally translated as charity or poor due and it is required to be distributed according to the details given in the Shariah. However, the descendents of the Prophet (pbuh), generally known as "Syeds" in the Indian subcontinent are forbidden to take zakat according to this Shariah. No matter how poor, they are considered superior by birth compared to other Muslims due to their supposed relationship with the Prophet (pbuh). Obviously, this is against our Prophet's Sunnah since he proclaimed justice, fairness, and equality for all, regardless of family or blood relationship.
The dispensation of zakat is regulated by different rates (called shar'h ) for different items called (nisaab) whose details are given in books of hadith and Fiqh. Zakat on money is 2.5% of the savings over a period of one year according to the Shari'ah. There are many conditions attached to the giving and receiving of zakat. There is no uniformity even among the Sunnis in the restrictions, rates and even the items of zakat.
In addition, there are different books of Fiqh and Shari'ah for different Muslim sects or schools of thought! Although Islamic scholars know about these differences in zakah among the Muslim sects, they rarely bring them out into the open, since it is in the interest of these scholars to keep the people ignorant.
The differences in zakat among the four Sunni Imams are not as major as among the Sunni and Shi'ia Imams. For example, in Fiqh Jaffariah , there is no zakat on paper currency. So, for the followers of this Fiqh there is no Zakat on bank accounts. When General Zia-ul-Haq, the Pakistani military ruler instituted compulsory zakat in Pakistan, the Shi'ia 'Ulema revolted against it and refused to abide by the government's zakat ordinance. Ultimately the government excluded Shi'ias from the yearly bank account deductions. This led many Sunnis to declare themselves Shi'ias on their bank forms to avoid paying zakat on their bank accounts.
Zakat - Conclusion
Dear sisters and brothers! We must re-turn to the true spirit of the Quran; we must have the courage to follow the Islam of our Prophet Muhammad (pbuh), which requires real sacrifice and a drastic change in our lifestyles. We must go back to the Quran as the primary source, and not to the rulings of Islamic scholars from the time of the Ummayad and Abbasid rulers.
In Part 2 of this article we will look at the real meaning and significance of zakah - the Arabic word zakah with its root z-k-w , which means growth and development, not charity or poor-due. Keeping this meaning in full view, zakat is supposed to ultimately lead to growth and development of all human beings; it is supposed to remove the need for charity or poor-due in the long term. We will see how zakat not only leads to the economic progress of individuals and all human beings but to their spiritual progress as well. We will also note the difference between Sadaqaa and Zakat.
Zakat - First Universal Welfare System
Contrary to the beliefs of both religious and secular Muslims, the Prophet Muhammad achievements were based not on ephemeral but on the permanent values of the Quran. He brought about the greatest revolution, even an economic and political miracle in human history (see Michael Hart, THE 100, pages 3-10). In a very short time after the prophet migrated to Medina and implemented the system of salaat and zakat, the economic condition of the people changed.
* (For a detailed discussion about the system of salaat, see a two part article in MONITOR, pages 6-10, September/October 1998, and pages 7-12, December1998/January 1999)
The Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) is reported to have said; If a single person were to sleep hungry in a town, then God's protection is lifted from that town -[Masnad Imam Ahmad]. This hadith emphasizes that no one (Muslims or non Muslims) under this system should go hungry. Thus this zakat system created the first universal welfare system in human history. It also gradually transformed the existing slave based economy to a universal welfare based economy. By the end of the Prophet's period, the entire Arabian Peninsula enjoyed economic as well as political security. This system reached its pinnacle during Khalifa Umar's time (again, see Michael Hart, THE 100, pages 261-265), a time when, history tells us, hardly anyone was in need of charity.
What has occurred then in the intervening years that the Muslims masses are suffering economic deprivation even though they live in areas with plenty of natural resources?
What Happened Then?
Muslims and non Muslims alike ask the question; If the system implemented by our Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) and Sahabaa (r) was so good, why did it not continue? The answer is simple, we changed or abandoned the system implemented by the Prophet Muhammad. Instead of deciding matters with open consultation, as the Quran requires, the Ummayad and Abbasid dynastic rulers created a dictatorship under the guise of " Shari'iah " and " Ijma'a ". This was a ploy to fool the people. The rulers first acquired illegal political authority, and then delegated religious authority to Imams appointed by themselves.
Thus they hijacked the train of Islam from the track of our Prophet (pbuh) and his Sahabba (r) and put it on a new track called " Shari'ah ." Since then, a minority of the rich and powerful has been riding this train and entertaining their friends while exploiting the vast majority of Muslims along the way. Consequently, common Muslims have continued to live in poverty and to suffer intergenerational economic misery. Islam's system of Zakat has had nothing to do with this sad state of affairs.
Zakat & Our Approach
Today, we are taught that zakat is one of the pillars of Islam. Zakat is generally translated as charity or poor due and it is required to be distributed according to the details given in the Shariah. However, the descendents of the Prophet (pbuh), generally known as "Syeds" in the Indian subcontinent are forbidden to take zakat according to this Shariah. No matter how poor, they are considered superior by birth compared to other Muslims due to their supposed relationship with the Prophet (pbuh). Obviously, this is against our Prophet's Sunnah since he proclaimed justice, fairness, and equality for all, regardless of family or blood relationship.
The dispensation of zakat is regulated by different rates (called shar'h ) for different items called (nisaab) whose details are given in books of hadith and Fiqh. Zakat on money is 2.5% of the savings over a period of one year according to the Shari'ah. There are many conditions attached to the giving and receiving of zakat. There is no uniformity even among the Sunnis in the restrictions, rates and even the items of zakat.
In addition, there are different books of Fiqh and Shari'ah for different Muslim sects or schools of thought! Although Islamic scholars know about these differences in zakah among the Muslim sects, they rarely bring them out into the open, since it is in the interest of these scholars to keep the people ignorant.
The differences in zakat among the four Sunni Imams are not as major as among the Sunni and Shi'ia Imams. For example, in Fiqh Jaffariah , there is no zakat on paper currency. So, for the followers of this Fiqh there is no Zakat on bank accounts. When General Zia-ul-Haq, the Pakistani military ruler instituted compulsory zakat in Pakistan, the Shi'ia 'Ulema revolted against it and refused to abide by the government's zakat ordinance. Ultimately the government excluded Shi'ias from the yearly bank account deductions. This led many Sunnis to declare themselves Shi'ias on their bank forms to avoid paying zakat on their bank accounts.
Zakat - Conclusion
Dear sisters and brothers! We must re-turn to the true spirit of the Quran; we must have the courage to follow the Islam of our Prophet Muhammad (pbuh), which requires real sacrifice and a drastic change in our lifestyles. We must go back to the Quran as the primary source, and not to the rulings of Islamic scholars from the time of the Ummayad and Abbasid rulers.
In Part 2 of this article we will look at the real meaning and significance of zakah - the Arabic word zakah with its root z-k-w , which means growth and development, not charity or poor-due. Keeping this meaning in full view, zakat is supposed to ultimately lead to growth and development of all human beings; it is supposed to remove the need for charity or poor-due in the long term. We will see how zakat not only leads to the economic progress of individuals and all human beings but to their spiritual progress as well. We will also note the difference between Sadaqaa and Zakat.
Zakat - Islamic Economy Purpose in Islam - Part 2
Economics: Concept and Purpose in Islam
In part I of this article, we had examined the prevailing opinions of both religious and secular Muslims, as well as the prevailing system of Zakat in some so-called Muslim countries. We had concluded that the concept and practice of Zakat has been reduced to a lifeless ritual by means of which the rich believe they can gain entry into Heaven in the Hereafter. On the other hand, our Prophet ( pbuh ) acted to establish the Deen of Allah Almighty in Medina by implementing the system of Salaah and Zakat as spelled out in the Quran. In this part we will look closely at this system of Zakat .
If Zakat is one of the pillars of the Deen , it stands to reason that this pillar must stand on a firm foundation. That firm foundation is comprised of each Muslim's unshakable conviction, 100% commitment, utter sincerity, and complete dedication to the belief that the Allah-owned resources on the planet must be made available to all creatures and human beings for their sustenance, nourishment, and growth.
The Arabic word Zakat , with its root Z -K -W means growth and development. A tree is nourished and grows in the presence of Allah-owned resources such as the soil, the rain, the sun, and the air (56:63-72; 80:24-31). Any interference in the flow of any of these resources will retard the growth and development of the tree. Similarly, any individual, group, government, or system which disrupts the natural flow of Allah-owned resources on the planet to all human beings creates an imbalance in society: the rich/poor, the master/slave, the owner/worker. In the West, this awareness is dawning in respect to plants, animal and insect species which are becoming extinct due to this imbalance in nature caused by the actions of human beings.
However, the global economic imbalance continues to grow unchecked because human beings have refused, in their greed, to believe in the basic economic principle of Zakat : unrestricted flow of resources to all human beings (41:10, 50:11, 55:10, 56:73, 79:33, and 80:32).
The capitalist New World Order of the West actively seeks to control the natural resources of weaker nations under the guise of "global economic security." Using the United Nations as a tool, the weak are intimidated into submission either through economic sanctions or military force. Allama Iqbal beautifully captured this mentality of the powerful when he said: "Hai wo sultan ghair ki kheti pe ho jiski nazar." (The master is one who always has an eye on others' lands.) Muslims, too, have abandoned the Quranic Zakat , which is Allah's assured challenge to this naked exploitation of the weak by the strong. Unlike other religions, Islam is a Deen , a system of life, a constitutionally-run, collective life that encompasses the social, economic, political, judicial, and military aspects of a community. The leaders of this community are not priests, or scholars, or the rich, or the strong: they are the most upright who commit to upholding the laws of Allah Almighty in the land, " Amr bil ma'aroof " (enjoining what is right) and " Nahya 'anil munkar " (forbidding what is wrong). They make sure the Quran, the Constitution of Allah, is en acted i.e. put into action.
What then, is the position of the Quran on the Economic World Order that should prevail, in other words, Zakat ? The Quran emphasizes the importance of economics in human life. While describing the life of Heaven, the Quran says there will be no hunger and no misery there.
"There is therein (enough provision) for thee not to go hungry nor to go naked." [Yusuf Ali (20:118)]
Too, the Quran teaches us to work for the good of this life, as well as the hereafter (2:201, 7:156), in contrast to the mindset of those who consider economic prosperity in this life to be an end in itself. According to the Quran, such people live at the animal level:
"Verily Allah Almighty will admit those who believe and do righteous deeds, to Gardens beneath which rivers flow; while those who reject Allah Almighty will enjoy (this world) and eat as cattle eat; and the Fire will be their abode." [Yusuf Ali (47:12)]
Taqwaa (righteous works) includes the use of economic prosperity to achieve a higher and nobler goal (10:63-64, 16:30). Economic prosperity is a means, not an end; it is a source for life, not the end of life; it is a prerequisite for growth and development in life, not the final goal of life. Since economic prosperity is so essential to human growth and development, Allah Almighty has addressed the issue of Zakat in great depth in the Quran.
To begin with, Allah Almighty says He is Rahman and Rahim :
"There is no moving creature on earth but its sustenance dependeth on Allah: He knoweth the time and place of its definite abode and its temporary deposit: All is in a clear Record." [Yusuf Ali (11:6)]
"How many are the creatures that carry not their own sustenance? It is Allah Almighty who feeds (both) them and you: for He hears and knows (all things)." [Yusuf Ali (29:60). Also see verses (6:152) and (17:31)]
Allah, of course, does not personally feed anyone: And when they are told, "Spend ye of (the bounties) with which God has provided you," the Unbelievers say to those who believe: "Shall we then feed those whom, if God had so willed, He would have fed, (Himself)?- Ye are in nothing but manifest error." [Yusuf Ali (36:47)]
Allah Almighty fulfills this promise by creating the resources for the nourishment and growth of all moving creatures. No one, therefore, has the right to own or control the Allah-given natural resources or to restrict their flow to humanity at large (107:7, 17:20). Otherwise, this is tantamount to belying the Deen of Allah Almighty (107:1-6). Any association or partnership with Allah Almighty in this respect is Shirk , an unforgivable sin in the sight of Allah. Allah Almighty says:
"Join not anything as equal with Him; be good to your parents; Kill not your children on a plea of Want- We provide sustenance for you and for them ." [Yusuf Ali 6:151]
Secondly, Allah Almighty is clearly the real owner of the resources He has created. The following verses in the Quran leave no doubt about this:
The earth and all its resources belong to Allah. It is such an obvious fact that no one can deny it (6:12, 10:31, 29:61 &63, 31:25, 34:24, 39:10 &38, 43:9).
· Allah Almighty is the inheritor of the earth (19:40). The earth has been created for the benefit of all (55:10).
It has been created to provide nourishment for all (56:73).
To Him belongs all that is in heavens and the earth, "La hu ma fissamawati fil ardh" (2:116, 2:255, 4:171, 5:40, 14:2, 16:52, 20:6, 22:64).
"Lillahi ma fissamawati fil ardh" (2:284, 3:109, 3:129, 4:131,132, 5:40, 10:55, 10:67, 14:2, 16:52, 20:6, 21:19, 34:1, 42:4, 42:53, 53:21).
"Lillahi miraathus samaawaatti wal ardh" (3:180).
As Owner, then, Allah Almighty has given us these resources as a trust which we are required to disburse according to His Will (the system of Zakat ), which is, to make available to all living creatures according to their needs, without any hindrance or control, the sustenance and provisions of life.
It was the Prophet's ( pbuh ) unshakable conviction, his utter commitment, and total obedience to this system of Zakat that led to the establishment of the basic infrastructure of a universal, welfare-based economic system in Medina, and which reached its pinnacle during Khalifa 'Umar's (R) time when, it is said, hardly anyone was in need of charity. The Prophet ( pbuh ) lived his life true to this principle: he was not an owner of anything, no land, no possessions; he was merely an enforcer of the Will of Allah Almighty - he established the system of Zakat .
Shirk - Associating Other Owners Besides Allah Almighty to the Ownership of the Earth
Since Allah Almighty owns the Earth and its resources, then no one else can be an owner. A simple example illustrates this well: I wish to buy a piece of land. The seller and I sign the papers, and legally, I become the new owner. But if we carry this process back far enough, a point will come where this mutual deal will come to an end. Someone must have acquired that land illegally at first without any mutual agreement. Now, in legal jargon, any illegally acquired property, no matter how many times it is bought and sold thereafter, remains illegal. So, how can I say that "I" am the "legal" owner of that land? In my own defense I may claim that I acquired the land "legally," or that it is not my responsibility to worry about someone else's very first illegal acquisition of that land, or that I bought it from halal earned income, so I "own" it. But it does not change the reality - I am involved in a deal which was Shirk to begin with. And, as long as I believe in "my ownership," I am involved in Shirk .
Brothers and sisters! It is not difficult to understand this kind of Shirk if our hearts and minds are open and sincere. According to the Quran, Muslim believers are required to enter into a contract with Allah Almighty in which they must sell their life and wealth to Him in exchange for Jannah : "Allah Almighty hath purchased of the believers their persons and their goods; for theirs (in return) is the garden (of Paradise)" [Yusuf Ali 9:111]
But, if we cling to the attitude that we own our life and wealth (in violation of the above ayah) then how can we practice and establish Zakat ? First, this Shirk (having two owners, Allah Almighty and us) has to be slowly and gradually eliminated before the tree of Zakat can take firm root in a land rooted in Tauheed (with Allah Almighty only being the owner of everything including our lives) and not in Shirk (in which others are also owners along with Allah). That is where Sadaqaa or charity comes in.
What is Sadaqaa ?
Our Islamic scholars interpret both Zakat and Sadaqaa as charity. And whatever instruction Allah Almighty has given in the Quran in the following verse for Sadaqaat they attribute it to Zakat .
Alms [Sadaqaat] are for the poor and the needy, and those employed to administer the (funds); for those whose hearts have been (recently) reconciled (to Truth); for those in bondage and in debt; in the cause of God; and for the wayfarer: (thus is it) ordained by God, and God is full of knowledge and wisdom. [Yusuf Ali (9:60)]
But, first of all, why would Allah Almighty use two different terms if they mean exactly the same thing? It does not make sense. Secondly, the Arabic language also does not support it. While the root meaning of Zakat comes from Z-K-W , meaning growth and development, the root meaning of Sadaqaa comes from the root S-D-Q , meaning truth and power. Therefore, all the words that are derived from this root will have these two meanings (truth and power) embedded in them. Siddeeq is one who proves his trust and belief by his actions. As-Sadaqatu is anything that is given in the way of Allah Almighty voluntarily to prove one's promise and belief in Him as opposed to Zakat , which is compulsory [Tajul 'Uroos]. Therefore, Sadaqqa has a different purpose in Islam than Zakat and both cannot be equated with each other. How can income tax (a compulsory thing) be equated with charity (a voluntary thing)?.
In part I of this article, we had examined the prevailing opinions of both religious and secular Muslims, as well as the prevailing system of Zakat in some so-called Muslim countries. We had concluded that the concept and practice of Zakat has been reduced to a lifeless ritual by means of which the rich believe they can gain entry into Heaven in the Hereafter. On the other hand, our Prophet ( pbuh ) acted to establish the Deen of Allah Almighty in Medina by implementing the system of Salaah and Zakat as spelled out in the Quran. In this part we will look closely at this system of Zakat .
If Zakat is one of the pillars of the Deen , it stands to reason that this pillar must stand on a firm foundation. That firm foundation is comprised of each Muslim's unshakable conviction, 100% commitment, utter sincerity, and complete dedication to the belief that the Allah-owned resources on the planet must be made available to all creatures and human beings for their sustenance, nourishment, and growth.
The Arabic word Zakat , with its root Z -K -W means growth and development. A tree is nourished and grows in the presence of Allah-owned resources such as the soil, the rain, the sun, and the air (56:63-72; 80:24-31). Any interference in the flow of any of these resources will retard the growth and development of the tree. Similarly, any individual, group, government, or system which disrupts the natural flow of Allah-owned resources on the planet to all human beings creates an imbalance in society: the rich/poor, the master/slave, the owner/worker. In the West, this awareness is dawning in respect to plants, animal and insect species which are becoming extinct due to this imbalance in nature caused by the actions of human beings.
However, the global economic imbalance continues to grow unchecked because human beings have refused, in their greed, to believe in the basic economic principle of Zakat : unrestricted flow of resources to all human beings (41:10, 50:11, 55:10, 56:73, 79:33, and 80:32).
The capitalist New World Order of the West actively seeks to control the natural resources of weaker nations under the guise of "global economic security." Using the United Nations as a tool, the weak are intimidated into submission either through economic sanctions or military force. Allama Iqbal beautifully captured this mentality of the powerful when he said: "Hai wo sultan ghair ki kheti pe ho jiski nazar." (The master is one who always has an eye on others' lands.) Muslims, too, have abandoned the Quranic Zakat , which is Allah's assured challenge to this naked exploitation of the weak by the strong. Unlike other religions, Islam is a Deen , a system of life, a constitutionally-run, collective life that encompasses the social, economic, political, judicial, and military aspects of a community. The leaders of this community are not priests, or scholars, or the rich, or the strong: they are the most upright who commit to upholding the laws of Allah Almighty in the land, " Amr bil ma'aroof " (enjoining what is right) and " Nahya 'anil munkar " (forbidding what is wrong). They make sure the Quran, the Constitution of Allah, is en acted i.e. put into action.
What then, is the position of the Quran on the Economic World Order that should prevail, in other words, Zakat ? The Quran emphasizes the importance of economics in human life. While describing the life of Heaven, the Quran says there will be no hunger and no misery there.
"There is therein (enough provision) for thee not to go hungry nor to go naked." [Yusuf Ali (20:118)]
Too, the Quran teaches us to work for the good of this life, as well as the hereafter (2:201, 7:156), in contrast to the mindset of those who consider economic prosperity in this life to be an end in itself. According to the Quran, such people live at the animal level:
"Verily Allah Almighty will admit those who believe and do righteous deeds, to Gardens beneath which rivers flow; while those who reject Allah Almighty will enjoy (this world) and eat as cattle eat; and the Fire will be their abode." [Yusuf Ali (47:12)]
Taqwaa (righteous works) includes the use of economic prosperity to achieve a higher and nobler goal (10:63-64, 16:30). Economic prosperity is a means, not an end; it is a source for life, not the end of life; it is a prerequisite for growth and development in life, not the final goal of life. Since economic prosperity is so essential to human growth and development, Allah Almighty has addressed the issue of Zakat in great depth in the Quran.
To begin with, Allah Almighty says He is Rahman and Rahim :
"There is no moving creature on earth but its sustenance dependeth on Allah: He knoweth the time and place of its definite abode and its temporary deposit: All is in a clear Record." [Yusuf Ali (11:6)]
"How many are the creatures that carry not their own sustenance? It is Allah Almighty who feeds (both) them and you: for He hears and knows (all things)." [Yusuf Ali (29:60). Also see verses (6:152) and (17:31)]
Allah, of course, does not personally feed anyone: And when they are told, "Spend ye of (the bounties) with which God has provided you," the Unbelievers say to those who believe: "Shall we then feed those whom, if God had so willed, He would have fed, (Himself)?- Ye are in nothing but manifest error." [Yusuf Ali (36:47)]
Allah Almighty fulfills this promise by creating the resources for the nourishment and growth of all moving creatures. No one, therefore, has the right to own or control the Allah-given natural resources or to restrict their flow to humanity at large (107:7, 17:20). Otherwise, this is tantamount to belying the Deen of Allah Almighty (107:1-6). Any association or partnership with Allah Almighty in this respect is Shirk , an unforgivable sin in the sight of Allah. Allah Almighty says:
"Join not anything as equal with Him; be good to your parents; Kill not your children on a plea of Want- We provide sustenance for you and for them ." [Yusuf Ali 6:151]
Secondly, Allah Almighty is clearly the real owner of the resources He has created. The following verses in the Quran leave no doubt about this:
The earth and all its resources belong to Allah. It is such an obvious fact that no one can deny it (6:12, 10:31, 29:61 &63, 31:25, 34:24, 39:10 &38, 43:9).
· Allah Almighty is the inheritor of the earth (19:40). The earth has been created for the benefit of all (55:10).
It has been created to provide nourishment for all (56:73).
To Him belongs all that is in heavens and the earth, "La hu ma fissamawati fil ardh" (2:116, 2:255, 4:171, 5:40, 14:2, 16:52, 20:6, 22:64).
"Lillahi ma fissamawati fil ardh" (2:284, 3:109, 3:129, 4:131,132, 5:40, 10:55, 10:67, 14:2, 16:52, 20:6, 21:19, 34:1, 42:4, 42:53, 53:21).
"Lillahi miraathus samaawaatti wal ardh" (3:180).
As Owner, then, Allah Almighty has given us these resources as a trust which we are required to disburse according to His Will (the system of Zakat ), which is, to make available to all living creatures according to their needs, without any hindrance or control, the sustenance and provisions of life.
It was the Prophet's ( pbuh ) unshakable conviction, his utter commitment, and total obedience to this system of Zakat that led to the establishment of the basic infrastructure of a universal, welfare-based economic system in Medina, and which reached its pinnacle during Khalifa 'Umar's (R) time when, it is said, hardly anyone was in need of charity. The Prophet ( pbuh ) lived his life true to this principle: he was not an owner of anything, no land, no possessions; he was merely an enforcer of the Will of Allah Almighty - he established the system of Zakat .
Shirk - Associating Other Owners Besides Allah Almighty to the Ownership of the Earth
Since Allah Almighty owns the Earth and its resources, then no one else can be an owner. A simple example illustrates this well: I wish to buy a piece of land. The seller and I sign the papers, and legally, I become the new owner. But if we carry this process back far enough, a point will come where this mutual deal will come to an end. Someone must have acquired that land illegally at first without any mutual agreement. Now, in legal jargon, any illegally acquired property, no matter how many times it is bought and sold thereafter, remains illegal. So, how can I say that "I" am the "legal" owner of that land? In my own defense I may claim that I acquired the land "legally," or that it is not my responsibility to worry about someone else's very first illegal acquisition of that land, or that I bought it from halal earned income, so I "own" it. But it does not change the reality - I am involved in a deal which was Shirk to begin with. And, as long as I believe in "my ownership," I am involved in Shirk .
Brothers and sisters! It is not difficult to understand this kind of Shirk if our hearts and minds are open and sincere. According to the Quran, Muslim believers are required to enter into a contract with Allah Almighty in which they must sell their life and wealth to Him in exchange for Jannah : "Allah Almighty hath purchased of the believers their persons and their goods; for theirs (in return) is the garden (of Paradise)" [Yusuf Ali 9:111]
But, if we cling to the attitude that we own our life and wealth (in violation of the above ayah) then how can we practice and establish Zakat ? First, this Shirk (having two owners, Allah Almighty and us) has to be slowly and gradually eliminated before the tree of Zakat can take firm root in a land rooted in Tauheed (with Allah Almighty only being the owner of everything including our lives) and not in Shirk (in which others are also owners along with Allah). That is where Sadaqaa or charity comes in.
What is Sadaqaa ?
Our Islamic scholars interpret both Zakat and Sadaqaa as charity. And whatever instruction Allah Almighty has given in the Quran in the following verse for Sadaqaat they attribute it to Zakat .
Alms [Sadaqaat] are for the poor and the needy, and those employed to administer the (funds); for those whose hearts have been (recently) reconciled (to Truth); for those in bondage and in debt; in the cause of God; and for the wayfarer: (thus is it) ordained by God, and God is full of knowledge and wisdom. [Yusuf Ali (9:60)]
But, first of all, why would Allah Almighty use two different terms if they mean exactly the same thing? It does not make sense. Secondly, the Arabic language also does not support it. While the root meaning of Zakat comes from Z-K-W , meaning growth and development, the root meaning of Sadaqaa comes from the root S-D-Q , meaning truth and power. Therefore, all the words that are derived from this root will have these two meanings (truth and power) embedded in them. Siddeeq is one who proves his trust and belief by his actions. As-Sadaqatu is anything that is given in the way of Allah Almighty voluntarily to prove one's promise and belief in Him as opposed to Zakat , which is compulsory [Tajul 'Uroos]. Therefore, Sadaqqa has a different purpose in Islam than Zakat and both cannot be equated with each other. How can income tax (a compulsory thing) be equated with charity (a voluntary thing)?.
Zakat - Islamic Economy Purpose in Islam - Part 3
Economics Of Zakah: Quran Economics
Before beginning this final part of our discussion of Zakah, let us briefly summarize the first two parts to maintain focus and continuity. In the first part we showed how our present approach to Zakah has turned into a lifeless ritual leading to differences in Zakah items and Zakah rates among various Sunni sects; major differences between Sunni and Shi'ia sects in this matter; non- uniform policy for collecting Zakah by Muslim governments which can range anywhere from voluntary contribution to compulsory deduction from bank accounts. These certainly were not the ways our Prophet ( PBUH ) and the rightly guided Khalifas practiced Zakah.
In the second part we emphasized that the real system of Zakah must lead to economic growth and development, and that, for this to occur, Zakah needs a strong foundation. Several verses from the Quran were presented which provide the basis of this foundation. Although Muslims continue to give the ritual Zakah, the economic problems continue to get worse. In fact, corruption in the system of Zakah collection and distribution is quite common in many Muslim countries and charitable organizations. We also pointed out that we really cannot talk about a system of Zakah as long as Allah-given resources are under the control of dictators/kings, capitalists, and/or priests whose primary objective is not to serve Allah Almighty or his servants, but to maintain their own power and control. Until Allah's resources are purified from their corruption (the root of Zakah also means purification), we cannot truly hope to implement Zakah. In this final part of the article, we venture to show how the Quranic concept of Zakah, if implemented in its pristine form, will, ultimately, lead to economic growth and development of not only Muslims but of the entire human race. This may sound strange or even impossible under the present system of Zakah being practiced by Muslims. But this situation has to do with Muslims and not Islam. We must differentiate between Muslims and Islam .
No one can argue that we, Muslims, are no longer the Ummah referred to in the Quran. We are divided into sects. We make excuses to justify our sectarian divisions in spite of Allah's stern and clear warnings against it (6:159,30:31,32) . We play with the verses of Allah Almighty and compile books-such as the book of tricks mentioned in Part-I-to circumvent Allah's clear orders about "giving Zakah." According to the Quran, accumulating wealth and looking for ways to multiply it leads to hell (104:2-4).
On the other hand, if we follow in the footsteps of the Prophet (PBUH) and his companions there will be no doubt or skepticism about the universal goal of Zakah. The skeptics (both Muslims and non-Muslims) have to go back to the period of the Prophet (PBUH) and the rightly guided Khalifas-and not to the Umayyad and Abbasi periods-to find a proof of the positive impact that the economics of Zakah created on the society. That society was established and ruled solely on the basis of the universal permanent values of the Quran.
Quranic Zakah: Requires Own Independent State
Because the Quran is a Constitution, it requires its own independent and free state where its unique economic system of Zakah can and should be implemented. The positive output (growth and nourishment at all levels) of this economic system is termed by the Quran "Aata-wuz-Zakaat" or "to give Zakah." The Quran says:
(They are) those who, if We establish them in the land, establish regular prayer and give Zakah " Aata-wuz-Zakaat ", enjoin the right and forbid wrong: with God rests the end (and decision) of (all) affairs. [Al-Hajj 22:41, Translation: Yusuf Ali]
"Establish them in the land," means the establishment of an Islamic state by the momineen or the believers. The beneficial outcome of Zakah must manifest in this world through its own government established along the lines of the Prophet (PBUH) and the Sahaabaa (R) .Therefore, the establishment of this Islamic state is different from the ones established by the proponents of so-called Shariah, from the Ummayah and Abbasids down to the present. How can a so-called Islamic government under the control of kings/dictators, capitalists, and/or priests implement the Quranic economics of Zakah when, in fact, they are the ones who corrupt it? The Quran does not even recognize their existence, let alone allow them to rule in the name of God. In fact, the Quran condemns religious priests who unjustly devour people's hard earned wealth (9:34).
Zakah: Lead to Growth and Development
The term "giving Zakah" means a) making available to all human beings the provisions of growth and development by providing equal opportunity within its jurisdiction and b) purifying a corrupt economic system. This is in contrast to the present situation where the governments " take away (a ritual) Zakah" instead of "giving (the Quranic) Zakah" to the people as instructed by Allah.
In the first place, the duty imposed by Allah Almighty for "giving Zakah," i.e. making available the provisions of growth and development, cannot be fulfilled unless the Quranic government has the capability to discharge this responsibility. The needs of the people determines how much Zakah is taken. Zakah is not a special religious tax or levy that is different from the government tax. In a Quranic state it is not possible for some people to hoard material possessions beyond their needs and indulge in excesses, while the rest are deprived of the basic means and provisions of life. The Quran explains the justification for this.
i. The Earth is the source of all the provisions of life. Like water, air and light, the Earth has been created by Allah Almighty for the benefit of all . Therefore, no one has the right to own it except Allah. We, humans, are only the trustees and beneficiaries. We are not owners. As discussed in the second part of this article, the claim of ownership of any part of the Earth by human beings is shirk in the sight of Allah.
ii. In this system, individuals cannot hold onto surplus wealth.
"They ask thee how much they are to spend; Say: 'What is beyond your needs.'" (2:219).
iii. Surplus wealth should go to the treasury ( Baitul Maal ) of the Islamic government, as was the case during the time of the rightly-guided Khalifas. Therefore, in this system, there is no question of individual, or group investment.
iv. This system will provide all the basic needs of life like housing, hospitalization, and education. No one will need to borrow money with interest for the above; no one will have surplus money to invest with interest.
v. The question of individual business for profit also does not arise in this system. Shops will be cooperative distribution centers, not sources of individual profit. Those who run the centers will receive compensation for their efforts.
[Note: Some may claim that the above advocates Communism. Nothing can be farther from the truth. Contrary to Islam, Communism does not believe in any power higher than itself. While people in a Communist state work for the good of the state in this life, Muslims work for the benefit of all to develop the individual soul for the Afterlife.]
Interest free Economics: According To Quran Laws
The economic system of the Quran must be run on an interest-free basis. While this topic is hotly debated in Islamic circles, the proponents of interest-free Islamic economics mostly seek ways to adapt it to Western capitalism. But the economic system of Zakah, grounded in the Quran, is unique, relying on the desire of individuals to uplift themselves morally and spiritually, not materially. Brothers and sisters! Just as Islam is opposed to Communism for putting the State before God and the "Self"(Soul), it is also opposed to Capitalism for putting money before God and the "Self."
The term Riba in the Quran encompasses more than "interest." Riba is the foundation of an economic system that is so directly opposed to the economic system of the Quran that Allah Almighty asks believers in the Quran to declare that this system is a war against "Allah Almighty and the Prophet (PBUH), " (2:279) and, therefore, to fight it. Ironically, today our Ulema occupy themselves with seeking solutions to the Riba -based economy of an un-Quranic system. Otherwise, what other explanation could there be for Imams (religious leaders) and Fuqahaa (religious jurists) who allow indirect silent partnership in business or land (read investment), a relatively mild form of exploitation compared to Riba ? [Detailed discussion of Riba requires a separate article.]
To recollect, our discussion of Zakah thus far can be summarized as follows:
1) Whatever is collected in the name of Zakah nowadays is really a charity. It has nothing to do with the Quranic Zakah.
2) For Zakah, the existence of an Islamic government based solely on the Quran as its Constitution is essential (22:40). This must replace any man-made economic system (like Capitalism or Communism) or purify any system based on an amalgamation with the divine system like the one based on the so-called "Shariah" developed under the Abbasi rule.
3) It is this government that can truly give (the Quranic) Zakah (" Aatawuz Zakah ") to its people by providing the means of growth and nourishment to everyone equally while demolishing such barriers as wealth, status, race, gender, ethnicity, language, etc.
4) To discharge this responsibility, the entire revenue of this government can be called Zakah. There cannot be a permanent fixed-for-all-time Zakah rate or Zakah items. The government will determine these based on the needs of the time and place. Whatever the Prophet ( PBUH ) fixed was based upon the needs of his time and place and was not meant to be permanent for all times and all places.
5) The charitable contributions to deal with emergency situations are called Sadaqaat (not Zakah) by the Quran.
Incentive for Giving: As we have seen, according to the Quran, it is the responsibility of the Islamic state to provide equal opportunity to all as a basic human right for growth and development. For this purpose, every family returns its surplus wealth to the Islamic state (2:219). Moreover, it is the duty of Muslims to extend this system to include the entire humanity (1:2).
What is the incentive that will drive people to give their surplus wealth to the Islamic system willingly? What benefit will the individual derive who gives his/her surplus wealth to this system?
Without satisfactory answers to the above questions, people will not be motivated to part with their surplus wealth. No one wants to part with his/her hard earned money without receiving some benefits in return. The Quran says: He sends down water from the skies, and the channels flow, each according to its measure: But the torrent bears away the foam that mounts up to the surface. Even so, from that (ore) which they heat in the fire, to make ornaments or utensils therewith, there is a scum likewise. Thus doth God (by parables) show forth Truth and Vanity. For the scum disappears like froth cast out; while that which is for the good of mankind remains on the earth . Thus doth God set forth parables. [ar-Ra`d 13:17, Translation: Yusufali]
The above verse reveals clearly and beautifully the answer to our questions: only that system will stay forever which is beneficial to all of humanity. This is the fundamental law that decides whether a system or an ideology is capable of being maintained or is transient and will disappear. According to this law, a system which is designed to benefit only a particular group or nation, will disappear sooner or later. The ruins of past empires (including Muslim ones) attest to the effectiveness of this law.
Therefore, when we choose an ideology of life other than what the Quran prescribes, we have to face the consequence of that choice.
Two Alternatives, Two Choices: Individuals tend to work for their own benefit. This is the driving force which motivates people to work. But according to the Quran:
Ø That system in which everyone works for one's own individual benefit does not have the ability to stay-no matter how much tinkering or patch-up job is done to save it. On the contrary,
Ø The system in which everyone works for the benefit of entire humankind will stay forever. It stays on the basis of its own intrinsic strength and power.
In the second system, individual benefits are not ignored. They just do not occur immediately or directly. Rather, they occur indirectly - and in the long run, while, in the first system, everyone gets his/her individual benefit right away. The Quran calls this short-term gain or Mataa'uddunya , while the long-term gain that comes to a person who has shared and circulated his/her worldly benefits with humankind, is called the future benefit or Aakhira . This is also referred to as the life of the future or Ha-yaatul Aakhira which includes the life after death as well (87:16-17).
Thus, according to the Quran, an ideology based on the welfare of the individual is short-sighted and doomed to perish, while the one based on the welfare of the entire humankind is just.
Quran: Tell Us About Universal Welfare
The Quran does not advocate this ideology on the basis of emotion or blind faith. Unlike other religions, the Quran provides objective proof for every claim it makes. So, why is an ideology based on the welfare of an individual or a family, or a race, or a nation wrong while the one based on universal welfare right? The Quran explains it through a practical example and provides an objective proof for this claim.
If human beings lived only at the animal level, then it would have been acceptable to look for one's own self-interest. Eating, drinking, and the pursuit of happiness from material things in life would have been their goal (47:12). But life at the human level is different than at the animal level. Animals do not have a sense of tomorrow or future. This distinguishes human beings from everything else in the universe. The human body in this world, which is a vehicle for the "self," or "soul," is left behind while the soul journeys on to another dimension which the Quran calls Ha-yaatul Aakhira , just as the mother's womb is a vehicle for the fetus which eventually separates and journeys on independently.
It is this sense of a larger future (or future life) that binds a human being with the rest of humanity just as individual members of a family work together for the future success of all the family members. Working for the benefit of humanity's future leads, in turn, to development and growth of the "self," an essential requirement for each individuals' future journey. The Quran says:
Verily, (the ends) ye strive for are diverse. So he who gives and fears [Wattaqa], And (in all sincerity) testifies to the best,- We will indeed make smooth for him the path to Bliss . But he who is a greedy miser and thinks himself self-sufficient, And gives the lie to the best,- We will indeed make smooth for him the path to Misery; Nor will his wealth profit him when he falls headlong (into the Pit). Verily We take upon Ourselves to guide, And verily unto Us (belong) the End and the Beginning. Therefore do I warn you of a Fire blazing fiercely; None shall reach it but those most unfortunate ones Who give the lie to Truth and turn their backs. But those most devoted to God shall be removed far from it,- Those who spend their wealth for increase in self-purification, [Surah Al-Layl 92:4-18, Translation: Yusufali.]
Human efforts are spent in different directions. But the one who "gives" (Muttaqi) saves himself/herself from dangers. (The root of Taqwa is: protection from dangers, therefore Muttaqi is one who is protected).
The above verses also provide the motivation for why one should "give." "Giving" achieves two things. First, it provides a source of nourishment, growth and development at the physical level. This is so obvious that it does not require further elaboration. Second, what is not so obvious is how it affects the non-physical or "human" aspect of life. In the interest of simplicity and brevity it is said that "giving" leads to spiritual growth. But what is this spiritual growth and how does it occur?
Human Activity Is Subject to Higher Law : The Quran explains in concrete terms that "spiritual growth" is not something imaginary or metaphysical. It says there is a higher law that operates on the "self" just as the physical law operates on the body. This higher law is that the "self" grows by giving whereas the body grows by "taking." Let us see a rational explanation for this law.
When human beings employ intelligence as a tool, human emotion tries to fulfill its ambitions and desires to excel by competition. Since human intelligence knows no other world than its own, it guides human beings to compete for this world. This is the material concept of life in which people try to outwit each other in conflict situations using every means, primarily power, money, influence. This is amplified several folds (in terms of its influence and impact) at the national and international levels. The Quran says that this way of life is transient, leads to waste of human potential, and ultimately to human catastrophe.
Human Desire: To Compete Cannot Be Crushed
Thus, according to the above verse, the Quran recognizes the very real existence of the human emotion to compete. But it also warns that the end result of the competition for material things is short-lived. The race for material things weakens rather than strengthens the human "self" and character. Instead, the Quran tells us to compete in a different arena, one which will not only strengthen our character and "self", but the results of which will encompass both this world and the hereafter:
Race one with another for forgiveness from your Lord [Rab or Nourisher] and a Garden whereof the breadth is as the breadth of the heavens and the earth, which is in store for those who believe in Allah Almighty and His messengers. Such is the bounty of Allah, which He bestoweth upon whom He will, and Allah Almighty is of Infinite Bounty. [Sura Al-Hadid 57:21, Translation: Pickthall]
This competition leads to a system in which Allah's bounty flows like a continuous river - a river that covers the breadth of the heavens and the earth-satisfying everyone's needs in this life and extending to the other. No one, in this system, erects any barriers in this free flowing economic bounty (garden) of life. Rather, everyone seeks forgiveness from Allah Almighty from such acts so that this bounty remains freely available for nourishment and growth for all, as Allah Almighty has promised (1:2, 17:31).
Before beginning this final part of our discussion of Zakah, let us briefly summarize the first two parts to maintain focus and continuity. In the first part we showed how our present approach to Zakah has turned into a lifeless ritual leading to differences in Zakah items and Zakah rates among various Sunni sects; major differences between Sunni and Shi'ia sects in this matter; non- uniform policy for collecting Zakah by Muslim governments which can range anywhere from voluntary contribution to compulsory deduction from bank accounts. These certainly were not the ways our Prophet ( PBUH ) and the rightly guided Khalifas practiced Zakah.
In the second part we emphasized that the real system of Zakah must lead to economic growth and development, and that, for this to occur, Zakah needs a strong foundation. Several verses from the Quran were presented which provide the basis of this foundation. Although Muslims continue to give the ritual Zakah, the economic problems continue to get worse. In fact, corruption in the system of Zakah collection and distribution is quite common in many Muslim countries and charitable organizations. We also pointed out that we really cannot talk about a system of Zakah as long as Allah-given resources are under the control of dictators/kings, capitalists, and/or priests whose primary objective is not to serve Allah Almighty or his servants, but to maintain their own power and control. Until Allah's resources are purified from their corruption (the root of Zakah also means purification), we cannot truly hope to implement Zakah. In this final part of the article, we venture to show how the Quranic concept of Zakah, if implemented in its pristine form, will, ultimately, lead to economic growth and development of not only Muslims but of the entire human race. This may sound strange or even impossible under the present system of Zakah being practiced by Muslims. But this situation has to do with Muslims and not Islam. We must differentiate between Muslims and Islam .
No one can argue that we, Muslims, are no longer the Ummah referred to in the Quran. We are divided into sects. We make excuses to justify our sectarian divisions in spite of Allah's stern and clear warnings against it (6:159,30:31,32) . We play with the verses of Allah Almighty and compile books-such as the book of tricks mentioned in Part-I-to circumvent Allah's clear orders about "giving Zakah." According to the Quran, accumulating wealth and looking for ways to multiply it leads to hell (104:2-4).
On the other hand, if we follow in the footsteps of the Prophet (PBUH) and his companions there will be no doubt or skepticism about the universal goal of Zakah. The skeptics (both Muslims and non-Muslims) have to go back to the period of the Prophet (PBUH) and the rightly guided Khalifas-and not to the Umayyad and Abbasi periods-to find a proof of the positive impact that the economics of Zakah created on the society. That society was established and ruled solely on the basis of the universal permanent values of the Quran.
Quranic Zakah: Requires Own Independent State
Because the Quran is a Constitution, it requires its own independent and free state where its unique economic system of Zakah can and should be implemented. The positive output (growth and nourishment at all levels) of this economic system is termed by the Quran "Aata-wuz-Zakaat" or "to give Zakah." The Quran says:
(They are) those who, if We establish them in the land, establish regular prayer and give Zakah " Aata-wuz-Zakaat ", enjoin the right and forbid wrong: with God rests the end (and decision) of (all) affairs. [Al-Hajj 22:41, Translation: Yusuf Ali]
"Establish them in the land," means the establishment of an Islamic state by the momineen or the believers. The beneficial outcome of Zakah must manifest in this world through its own government established along the lines of the Prophet (PBUH) and the Sahaabaa (R) .Therefore, the establishment of this Islamic state is different from the ones established by the proponents of so-called Shariah, from the Ummayah and Abbasids down to the present. How can a so-called Islamic government under the control of kings/dictators, capitalists, and/or priests implement the Quranic economics of Zakah when, in fact, they are the ones who corrupt it? The Quran does not even recognize their existence, let alone allow them to rule in the name of God. In fact, the Quran condemns religious priests who unjustly devour people's hard earned wealth (9:34).
Zakah: Lead to Growth and Development
The term "giving Zakah" means a) making available to all human beings the provisions of growth and development by providing equal opportunity within its jurisdiction and b) purifying a corrupt economic system. This is in contrast to the present situation where the governments " take away (a ritual) Zakah" instead of "giving (the Quranic) Zakah" to the people as instructed by Allah.
In the first place, the duty imposed by Allah Almighty for "giving Zakah," i.e. making available the provisions of growth and development, cannot be fulfilled unless the Quranic government has the capability to discharge this responsibility. The needs of the people determines how much Zakah is taken. Zakah is not a special religious tax or levy that is different from the government tax. In a Quranic state it is not possible for some people to hoard material possessions beyond their needs and indulge in excesses, while the rest are deprived of the basic means and provisions of life. The Quran explains the justification for this.
i. The Earth is the source of all the provisions of life. Like water, air and light, the Earth has been created by Allah Almighty for the benefit of all . Therefore, no one has the right to own it except Allah. We, humans, are only the trustees and beneficiaries. We are not owners. As discussed in the second part of this article, the claim of ownership of any part of the Earth by human beings is shirk in the sight of Allah.
ii. In this system, individuals cannot hold onto surplus wealth.
"They ask thee how much they are to spend; Say: 'What is beyond your needs.'" (2:219).
iii. Surplus wealth should go to the treasury ( Baitul Maal ) of the Islamic government, as was the case during the time of the rightly-guided Khalifas. Therefore, in this system, there is no question of individual, or group investment.
iv. This system will provide all the basic needs of life like housing, hospitalization, and education. No one will need to borrow money with interest for the above; no one will have surplus money to invest with interest.
v. The question of individual business for profit also does not arise in this system. Shops will be cooperative distribution centers, not sources of individual profit. Those who run the centers will receive compensation for their efforts.
[Note: Some may claim that the above advocates Communism. Nothing can be farther from the truth. Contrary to Islam, Communism does not believe in any power higher than itself. While people in a Communist state work for the good of the state in this life, Muslims work for the benefit of all to develop the individual soul for the Afterlife.]
Interest free Economics: According To Quran Laws
The economic system of the Quran must be run on an interest-free basis. While this topic is hotly debated in Islamic circles, the proponents of interest-free Islamic economics mostly seek ways to adapt it to Western capitalism. But the economic system of Zakah, grounded in the Quran, is unique, relying on the desire of individuals to uplift themselves morally and spiritually, not materially. Brothers and sisters! Just as Islam is opposed to Communism for putting the State before God and the "Self"(Soul), it is also opposed to Capitalism for putting money before God and the "Self."
The term Riba in the Quran encompasses more than "interest." Riba is the foundation of an economic system that is so directly opposed to the economic system of the Quran that Allah Almighty asks believers in the Quran to declare that this system is a war against "Allah Almighty and the Prophet (PBUH), " (2:279) and, therefore, to fight it. Ironically, today our Ulema occupy themselves with seeking solutions to the Riba -based economy of an un-Quranic system. Otherwise, what other explanation could there be for Imams (religious leaders) and Fuqahaa (religious jurists) who allow indirect silent partnership in business or land (read investment), a relatively mild form of exploitation compared to Riba ? [Detailed discussion of Riba requires a separate article.]
To recollect, our discussion of Zakah thus far can be summarized as follows:
1) Whatever is collected in the name of Zakah nowadays is really a charity. It has nothing to do with the Quranic Zakah.
2) For Zakah, the existence of an Islamic government based solely on the Quran as its Constitution is essential (22:40). This must replace any man-made economic system (like Capitalism or Communism) or purify any system based on an amalgamation with the divine system like the one based on the so-called "Shariah" developed under the Abbasi rule.
3) It is this government that can truly give (the Quranic) Zakah (" Aatawuz Zakah ") to its people by providing the means of growth and nourishment to everyone equally while demolishing such barriers as wealth, status, race, gender, ethnicity, language, etc.
4) To discharge this responsibility, the entire revenue of this government can be called Zakah. There cannot be a permanent fixed-for-all-time Zakah rate or Zakah items. The government will determine these based on the needs of the time and place. Whatever the Prophet ( PBUH ) fixed was based upon the needs of his time and place and was not meant to be permanent for all times and all places.
5) The charitable contributions to deal with emergency situations are called Sadaqaat (not Zakah) by the Quran.
Incentive for Giving: As we have seen, according to the Quran, it is the responsibility of the Islamic state to provide equal opportunity to all as a basic human right for growth and development. For this purpose, every family returns its surplus wealth to the Islamic state (2:219). Moreover, it is the duty of Muslims to extend this system to include the entire humanity (1:2).
What is the incentive that will drive people to give their surplus wealth to the Islamic system willingly? What benefit will the individual derive who gives his/her surplus wealth to this system?
Without satisfactory answers to the above questions, people will not be motivated to part with their surplus wealth. No one wants to part with his/her hard earned money without receiving some benefits in return. The Quran says: He sends down water from the skies, and the channels flow, each according to its measure: But the torrent bears away the foam that mounts up to the surface. Even so, from that (ore) which they heat in the fire, to make ornaments or utensils therewith, there is a scum likewise. Thus doth God (by parables) show forth Truth and Vanity. For the scum disappears like froth cast out; while that which is for the good of mankind remains on the earth . Thus doth God set forth parables. [ar-Ra`d 13:17, Translation: Yusufali]
The above verse reveals clearly and beautifully the answer to our questions: only that system will stay forever which is beneficial to all of humanity. This is the fundamental law that decides whether a system or an ideology is capable of being maintained or is transient and will disappear. According to this law, a system which is designed to benefit only a particular group or nation, will disappear sooner or later. The ruins of past empires (including Muslim ones) attest to the effectiveness of this law.
Therefore, when we choose an ideology of life other than what the Quran prescribes, we have to face the consequence of that choice.
Two Alternatives, Two Choices: Individuals tend to work for their own benefit. This is the driving force which motivates people to work. But according to the Quran:
Ø That system in which everyone works for one's own individual benefit does not have the ability to stay-no matter how much tinkering or patch-up job is done to save it. On the contrary,
Ø The system in which everyone works for the benefit of entire humankind will stay forever. It stays on the basis of its own intrinsic strength and power.
In the second system, individual benefits are not ignored. They just do not occur immediately or directly. Rather, they occur indirectly - and in the long run, while, in the first system, everyone gets his/her individual benefit right away. The Quran calls this short-term gain or Mataa'uddunya , while the long-term gain that comes to a person who has shared and circulated his/her worldly benefits with humankind, is called the future benefit or Aakhira . This is also referred to as the life of the future or Ha-yaatul Aakhira which includes the life after death as well (87:16-17).
Thus, according to the Quran, an ideology based on the welfare of the individual is short-sighted and doomed to perish, while the one based on the welfare of the entire humankind is just.
Quran: Tell Us About Universal Welfare
The Quran does not advocate this ideology on the basis of emotion or blind faith. Unlike other religions, the Quran provides objective proof for every claim it makes. So, why is an ideology based on the welfare of an individual or a family, or a race, or a nation wrong while the one based on universal welfare right? The Quran explains it through a practical example and provides an objective proof for this claim.
If human beings lived only at the animal level, then it would have been acceptable to look for one's own self-interest. Eating, drinking, and the pursuit of happiness from material things in life would have been their goal (47:12). But life at the human level is different than at the animal level. Animals do not have a sense of tomorrow or future. This distinguishes human beings from everything else in the universe. The human body in this world, which is a vehicle for the "self," or "soul," is left behind while the soul journeys on to another dimension which the Quran calls Ha-yaatul Aakhira , just as the mother's womb is a vehicle for the fetus which eventually separates and journeys on independently.
It is this sense of a larger future (or future life) that binds a human being with the rest of humanity just as individual members of a family work together for the future success of all the family members. Working for the benefit of humanity's future leads, in turn, to development and growth of the "self," an essential requirement for each individuals' future journey. The Quran says:
Verily, (the ends) ye strive for are diverse. So he who gives and fears [Wattaqa], And (in all sincerity) testifies to the best,- We will indeed make smooth for him the path to Bliss . But he who is a greedy miser and thinks himself self-sufficient, And gives the lie to the best,- We will indeed make smooth for him the path to Misery; Nor will his wealth profit him when he falls headlong (into the Pit). Verily We take upon Ourselves to guide, And verily unto Us (belong) the End and the Beginning. Therefore do I warn you of a Fire blazing fiercely; None shall reach it but those most unfortunate ones Who give the lie to Truth and turn their backs. But those most devoted to God shall be removed far from it,- Those who spend their wealth for increase in self-purification, [Surah Al-Layl 92:4-18, Translation: Yusufali.]
Human efforts are spent in different directions. But the one who "gives" (Muttaqi) saves himself/herself from dangers. (The root of Taqwa is: protection from dangers, therefore Muttaqi is one who is protected).
The above verses also provide the motivation for why one should "give." "Giving" achieves two things. First, it provides a source of nourishment, growth and development at the physical level. This is so obvious that it does not require further elaboration. Second, what is not so obvious is how it affects the non-physical or "human" aspect of life. In the interest of simplicity and brevity it is said that "giving" leads to spiritual growth. But what is this spiritual growth and how does it occur?
Human Activity Is Subject to Higher Law : The Quran explains in concrete terms that "spiritual growth" is not something imaginary or metaphysical. It says there is a higher law that operates on the "self" just as the physical law operates on the body. This higher law is that the "self" grows by giving whereas the body grows by "taking." Let us see a rational explanation for this law.
When human beings employ intelligence as a tool, human emotion tries to fulfill its ambitions and desires to excel by competition. Since human intelligence knows no other world than its own, it guides human beings to compete for this world. This is the material concept of life in which people try to outwit each other in conflict situations using every means, primarily power, money, influence. This is amplified several folds (in terms of its influence and impact) at the national and international levels. The Quran says that this way of life is transient, leads to waste of human potential, and ultimately to human catastrophe.
Human Desire: To Compete Cannot Be Crushed
Thus, according to the above verse, the Quran recognizes the very real existence of the human emotion to compete. But it also warns that the end result of the competition for material things is short-lived. The race for material things weakens rather than strengthens the human "self" and character. Instead, the Quran tells us to compete in a different arena, one which will not only strengthen our character and "self", but the results of which will encompass both this world and the hereafter:
Race one with another for forgiveness from your Lord [Rab or Nourisher] and a Garden whereof the breadth is as the breadth of the heavens and the earth, which is in store for those who believe in Allah Almighty and His messengers. Such is the bounty of Allah, which He bestoweth upon whom He will, and Allah Almighty is of Infinite Bounty. [Sura Al-Hadid 57:21, Translation: Pickthall]
This competition leads to a system in which Allah's bounty flows like a continuous river - a river that covers the breadth of the heavens and the earth-satisfying everyone's needs in this life and extending to the other. No one, in this system, erects any barriers in this free flowing economic bounty (garden) of life. Rather, everyone seeks forgiveness from Allah Almighty from such acts so that this bounty remains freely available for nourishment and growth for all, as Allah Almighty has promised (1:2, 17:31).
Monday, June 1, 2009
How Islam Influenced Science
How Islam Influenced Science
During the Middle Ages the Islamic World had a very significant impact upon Europe, which in turn cleared the way for the Renaissance and the Scientific Revolution. In the Medieval age, Islam and Muslims influenced Europe in a number of different ways. One of the most important of these subjects was Science.
Ever since Islam was born, Muslims had made immense leaps forward in the area of Science. Cities like Baghdad, Damascus, Cairo and Cordoba were the centers of civilization. These cities were flourishing and Muslim scientists made tremendous progress in applied as well as theoretical Science and Technology. In Europe, however, the situation was much different. Europe was in the Dark Ages. It had no infrastructure or central government. To the Muslims, Europe was backward, unorganized, carried no strategic importance and was essentially irrelevant. This considering the time period was in fact true. Nevertheless the Catholic Church (which at the time was the strongest institution in Europe) successfully convinced Christian Europe that the Muslims were infidels. This caused Europeans to think that Muslims were culturally inferior to Europe and thus Europe was unable to benefit from the new scientific discoveries being made in the Islamic lands before the 1100’s. By doing this Europe kept itself in the Dark Ages while from China to Spain Islamic Civilization prospered. During the Crusades there was limited contact between Muslims and Christians and not much was transferred. As A. Lewis explains, "The Crusaders were men of action, not men of learning". The real exchange of ideas which led to the Scientific revolution and to the renaissance occurred in Muslim Spain.
Cordoba was the capital of Muslim Spain. It soon became the center for all light and learning for the entire Europe. Scholars and students from various parts of the world and Europe came to Cordoba to study. The contrast in intellectual activity is demonstrated best by one example: ‘In the ninth century, the library of the monastery of St. Gall was the largest in Europe. It boasted 36 volumes. At the same time, that of Cordoba contained over 500,000!’.
The idea of the college was a concept which was borrowed from Muslims. The first colleges appeared in the Muslim world in the late 600's and early 700's. In Europe, some of the earliest colleges are those under the University of Paris and Oxford they were founded around the thirteenth century. These early European colleges were also funded by trusts similar to the Islamic ones and legal historians have traced them back to the Islamic system. The internal organization of these European colleges was strikingly similar to the Islamic ones, for example the idea of Graduate (Sahib) and undergraduate (mutafaqqih) is derived directly from Islamic terms.
In the field of Mathematics the number Zero (0) and the decimal system was introduced to Europe, which became the basis for the Scientific revolution. The Arabic numerals were also transferred to Europe, this made mathematical tasks much easier, problems that took days to solve could now be solved in minutes. The works of Al-Khwarizmi (Alghorismus) were translated into Latin. Alghorismus, from whom the mathematical term algorism was derived, wrote Sindhind, a compilation of astronomical tables. He, more importantly, laid the ground work for algebra and found methods to deal with complex mathematical problems, such as square roots and complex fractions. He conducted numerous experiments, measured the height of the earth's atmosphere and discovered the principle of the magnifying lens. Many of his books were translated into European languages. Trigonometric work by Alkirmani of Toledo was translated into Latin (from which we get the sine and cosine functions) along with the Greek knowledge of Geometry by Euclid. Along with mathematics, masses of other knowledge in the field of physical science was transferred.
Islamic contributions to Science were now rapidly being translated and transferred from Spain to the rest of Europe. Ibnul Hairham’s works on Optics, (in which he deals with 50 Optical questions put to Muslim Scholars by the Franks), was translated widely. The Muslims discovered the Principle of Pendulum, which was used to measure time. Many of the principles of Isaac Newton were derived from former Islamic scientific contributions. In the field of Chemistry numerous Islamic works were translated into Latin. One of the fields of study in this area was alchemy. The Muslims by exploring various elements, developed a good understanding of the constitution of matter. Jabir ibn-Hayyan (Geber) was the leading chemist in the Muslim world, some scholars link the introduction of the ‘scientific method’ back to him. A great number of terms used in Chemistry such as alchohol, alembic, alkali and elixir are of Islamic origin.
Medicine was a key science explored by Muslims. Al-Rhazes is one of the most famous Doctors and writers of Islamic History. Every major city had an hospital, the hospital at Cairo had over 8000 beds, with separate wards for fevers, ophthalmic, dysentery and surgical cases. He discovered the origin of smallpox and showed that one could only acquire it once in one's life, thus showing the existence of the immune system and how it worked. Muslim doctors were also aware of the contagious qualities of diseases. Hundreds of medical works were translated into Latin.
All of this knowledge transferred from the Muslims to the Europeans was the vital raw material for the Scientific Revolution. Muslims not only passed on Greek classical works but also introduced new scientific theories, without which the European Renaissance could not have occurred. Thus even though many of the Islamic contributions go unacknowledged, they played an integral role in the European transformation.
by Macksood Aftab
Managing Editor of The Islamic Herald, March 1995.
During the Middle Ages the Islamic World had a very significant impact upon Europe, which in turn cleared the way for the Renaissance and the Scientific Revolution. In the Medieval age, Islam and Muslims influenced Europe in a number of different ways. One of the most important of these subjects was Science.
Ever since Islam was born, Muslims had made immense leaps forward in the area of Science. Cities like Baghdad, Damascus, Cairo and Cordoba were the centers of civilization. These cities were flourishing and Muslim scientists made tremendous progress in applied as well as theoretical Science and Technology. In Europe, however, the situation was much different. Europe was in the Dark Ages. It had no infrastructure or central government. To the Muslims, Europe was backward, unorganized, carried no strategic importance and was essentially irrelevant. This considering the time period was in fact true. Nevertheless the Catholic Church (which at the time was the strongest institution in Europe) successfully convinced Christian Europe that the Muslims were infidels. This caused Europeans to think that Muslims were culturally inferior to Europe and thus Europe was unable to benefit from the new scientific discoveries being made in the Islamic lands before the 1100’s. By doing this Europe kept itself in the Dark Ages while from China to Spain Islamic Civilization prospered. During the Crusades there was limited contact between Muslims and Christians and not much was transferred. As A. Lewis explains, "The Crusaders were men of action, not men of learning". The real exchange of ideas which led to the Scientific revolution and to the renaissance occurred in Muslim Spain.
Cordoba was the capital of Muslim Spain. It soon became the center for all light and learning for the entire Europe. Scholars and students from various parts of the world and Europe came to Cordoba to study. The contrast in intellectual activity is demonstrated best by one example: ‘In the ninth century, the library of the monastery of St. Gall was the largest in Europe. It boasted 36 volumes. At the same time, that of Cordoba contained over 500,000!’.
The idea of the college was a concept which was borrowed from Muslims. The first colleges appeared in the Muslim world in the late 600's and early 700's. In Europe, some of the earliest colleges are those under the University of Paris and Oxford they were founded around the thirteenth century. These early European colleges were also funded by trusts similar to the Islamic ones and legal historians have traced them back to the Islamic system. The internal organization of these European colleges was strikingly similar to the Islamic ones, for example the idea of Graduate (Sahib) and undergraduate (mutafaqqih) is derived directly from Islamic terms.
In the field of Mathematics the number Zero (0) and the decimal system was introduced to Europe, which became the basis for the Scientific revolution. The Arabic numerals were also transferred to Europe, this made mathematical tasks much easier, problems that took days to solve could now be solved in minutes. The works of Al-Khwarizmi (Alghorismus) were translated into Latin. Alghorismus, from whom the mathematical term algorism was derived, wrote Sindhind, a compilation of astronomical tables. He, more importantly, laid the ground work for algebra and found methods to deal with complex mathematical problems, such as square roots and complex fractions. He conducted numerous experiments, measured the height of the earth's atmosphere and discovered the principle of the magnifying lens. Many of his books were translated into European languages. Trigonometric work by Alkirmani of Toledo was translated into Latin (from which we get the sine and cosine functions) along with the Greek knowledge of Geometry by Euclid. Along with mathematics, masses of other knowledge in the field of physical science was transferred.
Islamic contributions to Science were now rapidly being translated and transferred from Spain to the rest of Europe. Ibnul Hairham’s works on Optics, (in which he deals with 50 Optical questions put to Muslim Scholars by the Franks), was translated widely. The Muslims discovered the Principle of Pendulum, which was used to measure time. Many of the principles of Isaac Newton were derived from former Islamic scientific contributions. In the field of Chemistry numerous Islamic works were translated into Latin. One of the fields of study in this area was alchemy. The Muslims by exploring various elements, developed a good understanding of the constitution of matter. Jabir ibn-Hayyan (Geber) was the leading chemist in the Muslim world, some scholars link the introduction of the ‘scientific method’ back to him. A great number of terms used in Chemistry such as alchohol, alembic, alkali and elixir are of Islamic origin.
Medicine was a key science explored by Muslims. Al-Rhazes is one of the most famous Doctors and writers of Islamic History. Every major city had an hospital, the hospital at Cairo had over 8000 beds, with separate wards for fevers, ophthalmic, dysentery and surgical cases. He discovered the origin of smallpox and showed that one could only acquire it once in one's life, thus showing the existence of the immune system and how it worked. Muslim doctors were also aware of the contagious qualities of diseases. Hundreds of medical works were translated into Latin.
All of this knowledge transferred from the Muslims to the Europeans was the vital raw material for the Scientific Revolution. Muslims not only passed on Greek classical works but also introduced new scientific theories, without which the European Renaissance could not have occurred. Thus even though many of the Islamic contributions go unacknowledged, they played an integral role in the European transformation.
by Macksood Aftab
Managing Editor of The Islamic Herald, March 1995.
Saturday, May 30, 2009
Quantum Islam: Does Physics Confirm the Qur'anic Worldview?
The Qur'an, it has been argued, is unique among the scriptures of the major world religions in its compatibility with the shifts in world-view that have accompanied major scientific discoveries.
When Copernicus argued that the earth was not the center of the universe, the Christian worldview was thrown into chaos. Christians, with their anthropocentric cosmology, believed that we human beings were the be-all and end-all of the entire cosmos, so our planet had to be at the exact center of everything. This error was the natural result of confusing God with one of His creatures, a human being. The humanist heirs to Christianity persist in the same error, though they, along with most Christians, have grudgingly accepted the Copernican revolution, at least in astronomy. Muslims, on the other hand, have always known Allah as rabb al-`alamin, the Lord of the Worlds. That means that there are many worlds, of which ours is just one. Copernicus's discovery was not particularly surprising or disturbing to Muslims.
The success of popularizations of quantum physics, especially the recent film What the Bleep do We Know, suggests that a new Copernican revolution is brewing. Once again Muslims will find that its consequences are in accordance with Qur'anic teachings, even as non-Muslims find their entire worldviews turned upside-down. And once again, at the heart of the change is a scientific discovery showing that our world is merely one of an almost infinite plethora of other worlds.
Quantum physics, the most successful mathematical model of physical reality, tells us that “deep reality” consists not of physical objects, but of probability waves. Each point on a probability wave corresponds to an actual state of physical reality as we experience and measure it. But along with the one that we perceive and measure are an almost infinitely large number of other realities—other worlds—that seem to exist in parallel universes to which our senses and instruments do not have access.
The Western scientists who developed quantum theory have had difficulty accepting its implications. Like the pre-Copernican popes, they are emotionally attached to the idea that their own little world is the center of everything. Could my physical universe really be just one of a huge number of parallel universes branching out to infinity? If there are so many worlds, why do I just perceive one of them?
Islam answers “Why not?” If quantum physics is correct, Allah is Lord of the Worlds not just in the sense of having created an enormous number of suns and planets, but also in unfolding a multiplicity of worlds (universes) as part of the very process of creation. The idea that these unfolding worlds exist in a realm hidden from us should not surprise readers of the Qur'an, which repeatedly speaks of `alam al-ghaib (the concealed dimension of reality). Nor should Muslims be dismayed by the almost infinite richness and mulitiplicity of Allah's creation. After all, Allah is the One who only has to say “Be” and it is. Nor should Muslims have difficulty accepting their humble place in this magnificent scheme. After all, our purpose and place is to submit to Allah, not boastfully insist that we and we alone must be the center of creation.
The new Copernican revolution of quantum physics inspired the recent movie sensation What the Bleep Do We Know, a lively, thought-provoking film that predictably takes a somewhat narcissistic approach to quantum reality. Whereas Islam orients us toward awed submission to the Lord of the Worlds, new age spirituality often emphasizes personal power and gratification. Rather than finding balance and inner peace, and marveling at the stunning richness and multiplicity of unfolding creation, the new age approach to the discovery of multiple universes is, “That means I can choose which universe I want to live in—I can control the very reality I perceive! Wow, I'm almost a god! Maybe I AM God!” This mistake is inevitable, given Western culture's drift from Christianity (which confuses a man with God) to humanism (which makes mankind into its God) to the current state of confusion as technology grasps for seemingly godlike powers.
Are there really multiple realities branching out all around us, and can we really choose between them? This question reduces a tremendous insight into the nature of reality into a pragmatic quest for power. Here are the stages the Western world is going through as it confronts the new Copernican revolution of quantum reality:
(1) Denial. From Einstein's “God does not play dice with the universe” to the ongoing attempts to explain how the many “unreal” quantum realities collapse into the single “one truly real” reality that I perceive, the egocentric consciousness desperately clings to the illusion that its reality is the only real one; all others are mere illusion that must be explained away.
(2) Egocentric, power-mongering acceptance of quantum reality. Exemplified by the film What the Bleep do We Know, this approach accepts the multiple realities implication of quantum physics, but views it mainly as a tool for personal empowerment: getting rid of negative emotions, experiencing more pleasure, and generally choosing to live a more enjoyable, less neurotic life. While there is nothing wrong with getting rid of addictions and negative emotions and experiencing pleasure, making this the central goal of existence is self-defeating.
(3) Experiencing the larger vision of reality quantum physics describes, and assuming an orientation of awed, grateful submission to the Creator of that amazing reality-process.
The third stage is the one recommended in no uncertain terms by the Qur'an. Allah, the Lord of the Worlds, Creator of all that exists, is the One who is All-Knowing and All-Seeing. The basic grounding and orientation of our existence should be awed submission to Allah, not a neurotic pursuit for power over the tiny corner of reality that we inhabit.
Of the popularizations of quantum physics that I am familiar with, perhaps the best—and certainly the most interesting from a Muslim perspective—is Science, Sense & Soul: The Mystical-Physical Nature of Human Existence by Casey Blood, Ph.D. (Los Angeles: Renaissance Books, 2001). The author, a physicist who has been heavily influenced by Islamic ideas, offers an amazingly lucid interpretation of quantum physics that closely fits the Qur'anic cosmology.
As Blood describes it, the quantum description of reality puts an end to the age of materialism, by requiring the existence of nonphysical Mind behind the physical brain. This nonphysical element is extremely rich and complex, and corresponds to the part of us that survives death—the ruh in traditional Islamic cosmology. During life, it makes choices between the quantum realities corresponding to our thoughts, and these choices have immense repercussions for our experience not only of life, but also after death. In fact, the choices we make in life will have their most immense repercussions after death, as Islam teaches us. Why? Because while we are alive, the physical universe modifies and structures our consciousness, rendering finite the repercussions of each thought-choice we make. When our non-physical Mind is cut off from the physical universe, as happens to a certain extent in sleep and with absolute finality at death, the thought-forms of Mind itself become the whole of consciousness. All the good and bad that we have done is eternalized, and we enter the form of eternity shaped by our own actions. In other words, we enter an eternal paradise or jahannum that is the fruit of our choices during life. Thus our choices are of immense importance, as the Qur'an repeatedly warns us.
Blood's quantum cosmology not only suggests the existence of Allah, creator and sustainer, Lord of the Words, it demands it. By assuming that quantum reality is physical reality, Blood shows that something else—a very big something else—is needed. At the level of our individual consciousness, that something else is the nonphysical Mind or soul. At the level of the cosmos as a whole, a unifying non-physical mind underlying and creating the quantum-governed physical dimension is equally necessary. Now what could we call such an all-creating, all-embracing, absolute-justice-dispensing, all-merciful non-material mind? Muslims would call it Allah.
Besides suggesting the reality of Allah, paradise, hellfire and judgment, based on the most straightforward interpretation of contemporary physics, Blood also demonstrates where angels and jnun fit into the scheme. The realm of angels, he writes, is an aspect of non-physical Mind that is relatively closer to Allah and further from quantum-governed material reality; while the realm of the jnun is a denser layer of non-physical Mind closer to material reality. Our own Mind (ruh) can and does experience both planes.
It is well known that certain passages in the Qur'an have prefigured later scientific discoveries. But until I read Blood's book, I had never heard anyone claim that the most straightforward interpretation of the most basic scientific approach to reality, physics, had confirmed the key principles of the Islamic worldview. This is quite an interesting bit of news. As the amazing implications of quantum physics slowly seep into global consciousness, perhaps the narcissistic “Wow! I create reality” phase will give way to a more mature understanding of the cosmos—an understanding rooted in an Islamic worldview confirmed by the ripening of scientific knowledge.
By Dr Kevin J. Barrett
When Copernicus argued that the earth was not the center of the universe, the Christian worldview was thrown into chaos. Christians, with their anthropocentric cosmology, believed that we human beings were the be-all and end-all of the entire cosmos, so our planet had to be at the exact center of everything. This error was the natural result of confusing God with one of His creatures, a human being. The humanist heirs to Christianity persist in the same error, though they, along with most Christians, have grudgingly accepted the Copernican revolution, at least in astronomy. Muslims, on the other hand, have always known Allah as rabb al-`alamin, the Lord of the Worlds. That means that there are many worlds, of which ours is just one. Copernicus's discovery was not particularly surprising or disturbing to Muslims.
The success of popularizations of quantum physics, especially the recent film What the Bleep do We Know, suggests that a new Copernican revolution is brewing. Once again Muslims will find that its consequences are in accordance with Qur'anic teachings, even as non-Muslims find their entire worldviews turned upside-down. And once again, at the heart of the change is a scientific discovery showing that our world is merely one of an almost infinite plethora of other worlds.
Quantum physics, the most successful mathematical model of physical reality, tells us that “deep reality” consists not of physical objects, but of probability waves. Each point on a probability wave corresponds to an actual state of physical reality as we experience and measure it. But along with the one that we perceive and measure are an almost infinitely large number of other realities—other worlds—that seem to exist in parallel universes to which our senses and instruments do not have access.
The Western scientists who developed quantum theory have had difficulty accepting its implications. Like the pre-Copernican popes, they are emotionally attached to the idea that their own little world is the center of everything. Could my physical universe really be just one of a huge number of parallel universes branching out to infinity? If there are so many worlds, why do I just perceive one of them?
Islam answers “Why not?” If quantum physics is correct, Allah is Lord of the Worlds not just in the sense of having created an enormous number of suns and planets, but also in unfolding a multiplicity of worlds (universes) as part of the very process of creation. The idea that these unfolding worlds exist in a realm hidden from us should not surprise readers of the Qur'an, which repeatedly speaks of `alam al-ghaib (the concealed dimension of reality). Nor should Muslims be dismayed by the almost infinite richness and mulitiplicity of Allah's creation. After all, Allah is the One who only has to say “Be” and it is. Nor should Muslims have difficulty accepting their humble place in this magnificent scheme. After all, our purpose and place is to submit to Allah, not boastfully insist that we and we alone must be the center of creation.
The new Copernican revolution of quantum physics inspired the recent movie sensation What the Bleep Do We Know, a lively, thought-provoking film that predictably takes a somewhat narcissistic approach to quantum reality. Whereas Islam orients us toward awed submission to the Lord of the Worlds, new age spirituality often emphasizes personal power and gratification. Rather than finding balance and inner peace, and marveling at the stunning richness and multiplicity of unfolding creation, the new age approach to the discovery of multiple universes is, “That means I can choose which universe I want to live in—I can control the very reality I perceive! Wow, I'm almost a god! Maybe I AM God!” This mistake is inevitable, given Western culture's drift from Christianity (which confuses a man with God) to humanism (which makes mankind into its God) to the current state of confusion as technology grasps for seemingly godlike powers.
Are there really multiple realities branching out all around us, and can we really choose between them? This question reduces a tremendous insight into the nature of reality into a pragmatic quest for power. Here are the stages the Western world is going through as it confronts the new Copernican revolution of quantum reality:
(1) Denial. From Einstein's “God does not play dice with the universe” to the ongoing attempts to explain how the many “unreal” quantum realities collapse into the single “one truly real” reality that I perceive, the egocentric consciousness desperately clings to the illusion that its reality is the only real one; all others are mere illusion that must be explained away.
(2) Egocentric, power-mongering acceptance of quantum reality. Exemplified by the film What the Bleep do We Know, this approach accepts the multiple realities implication of quantum physics, but views it mainly as a tool for personal empowerment: getting rid of negative emotions, experiencing more pleasure, and generally choosing to live a more enjoyable, less neurotic life. While there is nothing wrong with getting rid of addictions and negative emotions and experiencing pleasure, making this the central goal of existence is self-defeating.
(3) Experiencing the larger vision of reality quantum physics describes, and assuming an orientation of awed, grateful submission to the Creator of that amazing reality-process.
The third stage is the one recommended in no uncertain terms by the Qur'an. Allah, the Lord of the Worlds, Creator of all that exists, is the One who is All-Knowing and All-Seeing. The basic grounding and orientation of our existence should be awed submission to Allah, not a neurotic pursuit for power over the tiny corner of reality that we inhabit.
Of the popularizations of quantum physics that I am familiar with, perhaps the best—and certainly the most interesting from a Muslim perspective—is Science, Sense & Soul: The Mystical-Physical Nature of Human Existence by Casey Blood, Ph.D. (Los Angeles: Renaissance Books, 2001). The author, a physicist who has been heavily influenced by Islamic ideas, offers an amazingly lucid interpretation of quantum physics that closely fits the Qur'anic cosmology.
As Blood describes it, the quantum description of reality puts an end to the age of materialism, by requiring the existence of nonphysical Mind behind the physical brain. This nonphysical element is extremely rich and complex, and corresponds to the part of us that survives death—the ruh in traditional Islamic cosmology. During life, it makes choices between the quantum realities corresponding to our thoughts, and these choices have immense repercussions for our experience not only of life, but also after death. In fact, the choices we make in life will have their most immense repercussions after death, as Islam teaches us. Why? Because while we are alive, the physical universe modifies and structures our consciousness, rendering finite the repercussions of each thought-choice we make. When our non-physical Mind is cut off from the physical universe, as happens to a certain extent in sleep and with absolute finality at death, the thought-forms of Mind itself become the whole of consciousness. All the good and bad that we have done is eternalized, and we enter the form of eternity shaped by our own actions. In other words, we enter an eternal paradise or jahannum that is the fruit of our choices during life. Thus our choices are of immense importance, as the Qur'an repeatedly warns us.
Blood's quantum cosmology not only suggests the existence of Allah, creator and sustainer, Lord of the Words, it demands it. By assuming that quantum reality is physical reality, Blood shows that something else—a very big something else—is needed. At the level of our individual consciousness, that something else is the nonphysical Mind or soul. At the level of the cosmos as a whole, a unifying non-physical mind underlying and creating the quantum-governed physical dimension is equally necessary. Now what could we call such an all-creating, all-embracing, absolute-justice-dispensing, all-merciful non-material mind? Muslims would call it Allah.
Besides suggesting the reality of Allah, paradise, hellfire and judgment, based on the most straightforward interpretation of contemporary physics, Blood also demonstrates where angels and jnun fit into the scheme. The realm of angels, he writes, is an aspect of non-physical Mind that is relatively closer to Allah and further from quantum-governed material reality; while the realm of the jnun is a denser layer of non-physical Mind closer to material reality. Our own Mind (ruh) can and does experience both planes.
It is well known that certain passages in the Qur'an have prefigured later scientific discoveries. But until I read Blood's book, I had never heard anyone claim that the most straightforward interpretation of the most basic scientific approach to reality, physics, had confirmed the key principles of the Islamic worldview. This is quite an interesting bit of news. As the amazing implications of quantum physics slowly seep into global consciousness, perhaps the narcissistic “Wow! I create reality” phase will give way to a more mature understanding of the cosmos—an understanding rooted in an Islamic worldview confirmed by the ripening of scientific knowledge.
By Dr Kevin J. Barrett
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